Chapter 2 Patterns of Crime

Chapter 2Patterns of Crime Frank Schmalleger PowerPoint presentation created by Ellen G. Cohn, Ph.D.

History of Crime Statistics • Gathering of crime statistics relatively new phenomenon • Inferences based on statistical demographics date back 200 years • Thomas Robert Malthus • Economist who published an essay in 1798 claiming that as the earth’s population grew, it would lead to competition locally and internationally for limited resources.

History of Crime Statistics • Andre Michel Guerry (1802-1866) • Calculated per capita crime rates in France in early 1800s • Adolphe Quetelet (1796-1864) • Statistical analysis of crime in Europe. Wanted to see if crime varied by climate, age, and gender. • Thermic law – crime varies with seasons and climate • Led to development of statistical school

Crime Statistics Today • National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) • Conducted by Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS) • Criminal Victimization in the United States • Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) Program • Conducted by Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) • Crime in the United States • National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS) • Collected by FBI

Programmatic Problems with Available Data BJS and FBI information differ significantly, not strictly comparable • Examine crime problem from different perspectives • Procedural and methodological differences • Definitions vary between agencies, none based on state or federal statutes

The UCR Program • Crime Index • Provided crime rate to be compared over time and across locations • Expressed as: X number of offenses per 100,000 people

Violent Crimes Murder Rape Robbery Aggravated assault Property Crimes Burglary Larceny Motor vehicle theft Arson Part I/Index Crimes

Cleared Crimes • Cleared/solved crimes: • Arrest made • Exceptionally Cleared: Perpetrator known but arrest not possible • Clearance rate: • Proportion of reported/discovered crimes within given offense category that are cleared

UCR Problems • UCR is a reporting program • Only includes crimes known to police • Seriously underestimates true nature of crime in the U.S. • Dark figure of crime

UCR Problems Reasons for failure to report crime (e.g., rape) • Fear of perpetrator • Shame • Fear of not being believed • Fear of further participation in the criminal justice system

NIBRS • Funded in part by Federal Crime Identification Technology Act of 1998 • Still being phased in • Most important feature is incident-driven nature • Collects detailed data on circumstances surrounding each criminal incident

NIBRS • Crime definitions revised • 46 Group A offenses in 22 crime categories • 11 Group B offense categories (collect arrest data only) • Reports more detailed than UCR program • Include information about offense, parties involved, property (if any)

Hate Crimes • Hate/bias crimes: Crimes motivated by religious, ethnic, racial, or sexual orientation prejudice, or by bias against persons with disabilities • Collection mandated by Hate Crime Statistics Act of 1990 • In 2003, there were 7,489 reported incidents of hate crimes. • 52.5% were motivated by racial bias, 16.4% by religious bias, 16.4% by sexual orientation, and 14.2% by ethnicity or national origin. • Crimes of violence represented 63.3% of hate crimes. Murder accounted for only .1% of reported hate crimes.

Hate Crimes • Hate groups • KKK, Aryan Nations, National Alliance, etc. • Existed for many years • Most hate crimes not committed by hate groups • Majority of hate crimes are committed by teens, primarily white males, acting alone or in groups

Data Gathering Under the NCVS • NCVS began in 1972 • Information obtained through interviews • Includes information on unreported crimes • More accurate measure of incidence of crime in U.S.

Data Gathering Under the NCVS • Data collected by U.S. Census Bureau • 42,000 households, 76,000 people • Interviews at six-month intervals for three years • Anyone 12 years or older included • Gathers information on victims and crimes

Violent Crimes Rape Personal robbery Aggravated and simple assault Property Crimes Household burglar Personal and household theft Motor vehicle theft Crimes Included in NCVS Does not include murder, arson, crimes against businesses, or crimes against children under 12

Critique of the NCVS • Possible overreporting • Definitions of crime do not correspond to federal or state statutes • Recent changes in the NCVS make it hard to compare earlier findings with current data

Major Crime Shifts • Early 1940s – sharp decrease in crime (WWII) • 1960s – 1990s – dramatic increase in crime • Post-WWII baby-boomers entered crime-prone years • Increased reporting and data collection • Disruption of 1960s • 1991 – 2003 – decrease in crime • Baby-boomers aging out of crime • Stricter laws, expanded justice system • Economic expansion • Changing demographics, family planning

Next Crime Cycle? • May be on verge of new cycle of increased crime • Possible causes • Economic uncertainty, increased unemployment • Growing teen population • More ex-cons back on the street • More gang influence • Copycat crimes • Social disorganization after natural disasters

The Crime Problem • Do crime rates accurately measure extent of crime problem in US? • Official rates suggest crime decreasing • Rates only based on small group of crimes • Do not include drug offenses • Correctional population might give better picture of the crime problem

Crime in World Context Violent crime rate in US much higher than in other industrial democracies • Elliott Currie argues that the drop in crime is a “falling-off from an extraordinary peak” • Levels of violence in US still unreasonably high

Criminality Index • Criminality index – actual extent of the crime problem • Latent crime rate – rate of crime calculated on basis of crimes likely to be committed by those incapacitated by the system Criminality index = actual crime rate + latent crime rate

Criminal Homicide Homicide versus murder: • Homicide: willful killing of one human being by another • Murder : criminal/unlawful homicide, killing without legal justification or excuse

Criminal Homicide Types of murder: • First-degree – planned, premeditated • Second-degree – crime of passion • Third-degree - negligent homicide, involuntary manslaughter • Felony murder – killing during the commission of another felony

Forcible Rape UCR/NIBRS – three categories • Forcible rape • Statutory rape • Attempted forcible rape

Forcible Rape Other types of rape: • Spousal rape • Gang rape • Date rape • Same-sex rape

Forcible Rape Motivation of rapists: • Contemporary thought sees rape as a crime of power • Rapists demean victims to feel powerful, important • Some scholars returning to emphasis on sexual gratification as cause of rape

Robbery • UCR/NIBRS definition The unlawful taking or attempted taking of property that is in the immediate possession of another force or threat of force and/or by putting the victim in fear • NCVS definition also includes attempts

Robbery • Highway/street robbery • Strong-arm robbery • Armed robbery

Assault • Aggravated assault: The unlawful attack by one person upon another for the purpose of inflicting severe or aggravated bodily injury • Simple assault: Attack without a weapon resulting either in minor injury or in undetermined injury requiring less than two days of hospitalization

Burglary • UCR/NIBRS definition • The unlawful entry of a structure to commit a felony or a theft • Use of force not required • Categories of burglary • Forcible entry • Attempted forcible entry • Unlawful entry without force

Larceny • UCR/NIBRS: The unlawful taking, carrying, leading, or riding away by stealth of property, other than a motor vehicle, from the possession or constructive possession of another • NCVS – two categories • Household larceny • Personal larceny

Motor Vehicle Theft • UCR/NIBRS - theft or attempted theft of a motor vehicle • Carjacking - stealing an occupied car • Usually involves a weapon • Victim frequently injured or killed

Arson • Arson (UCR/NIBRS): Any willful or malicious burning or attempt to burn, with or without intent to defraud, a dwelling house, public building, motor vehicle or aircraft, personal property of another • Not reported by NCVS

Arson Motivations for arson: • Thrill-seekers • Vandals • Pyromaniacs • Arson for vengeance • Vanity pyromaniacs • Conceal other crimes • Defrauding insurance companies – most common motivation

Part II Offenses • Less serious offenses • Many are misdemeanors • UCR only collects arrest data • Includes victimless or “social order” crimes

Other Sources of Data • Crime Awareness and Campus Security Act of 1990 • Requires colleges/universities to report campus crime statistics • Campus Sexual Assault Victims’ Bill of Rights • Amends 1990 Act • Requires schools to develop policies to deal with sexual assault on campus • Campus Security Statistics web site • Created by 1998 amendment

Unreported Crime • Dark figure of crime: • Unreported crimes not found in official crime statistics • Self-report surveys provide information on this • Anonymous respondents • Report on crimes they have committed

Problems with Self-Report Surveys • Subjects usually young people • Questions often focus on petty crimes • Typically focus on juvenile delinquency • No guarantee of respondent accuracy

Social Dimensions of Crime • Aspects of crime and victimization as they relate to socially significant attributes by which groups are defined and according to which individuals are assigned group membership • Key social dimensions • Gender • Ethnicity/race • Age • Income/wealth • Profession • Social class/social standing

Correlations • Connection or association observed to exist between two measurable variables • Positive • Negative • Correlation does not imply causation • Spurious correlations

Age and Crime • Age is negatively related to crime • Desistance phenomenon –most forms of criminality decrease with age • Elderly may be involved in crime • Less likely to commit street crime • Generally commit crimes requiring special skills, knowledge

Gender and Crime Gender is called “the best single predictor of criminality” • Most crime committed by men • Rate of female criminality has changed little over time • Women also victimized less frequently than men (except for rape and spousal abuse)

Race and Crime • Apparent link between crime and race • Race-based disparities in arrests, incarceration • Differential treatment by justice system? • William Wilbanks – Myth of a Racist Criminal Justice System • Race/crime relationship is a source of divisiveness in American society • Has led to increased fear of crime among African-Americans

Social Class and Crime • Prior to 1960, correlation between social class and crime assumed • Self-report studies in 1960s found rates of self-reported crime consistent across social classes • Class/crime relationship may be result of discretionary practices within justice system • Recent research supports class/crime relationship

Chapter 2 Patterns of Crime