The Americas on the Eve of Invasion

1. The Americas on the Eve of Invasion 12

2. Figure 12.1 The great Aztec city-state of Tenochtitlan was established on an island in the midst of a large lake. Connected to the shores by causeways, supplied with fresh water by an aqueduct, it housed a population estimated to be over 150,000. Early Spanish observers compared its canals to Venice and were fascinated by its markets and gardens. To the Aztecs it was the center of political and spiritual power, or as they called it, “the foundation of heaven.”

3. Chapter Overview • Postclassic Mesoamerica, 1000–1500 C.E. • Aztec Society in Transition • Twantinsuyu: World of the Incas • The Other Peoples of the Americas

4. TIMELINE 900 C.E. to 1450 C.E.

5. Postclassic Mesoamerica, 1000–1500C.E. • Teotihuacan collapses, 700s • Toltec culture • The Toltec Heritage • Rule extended to Yucatan, Maya lands, c. 1000 • Commercial influence to American Southwest • Possibly Mississippi, Ohio valleys

6. Figure 12.2 Toltec political and cultural influence spread from its capital at Tula in northern Mexico to places as far south as Chichén Itzá in Yucatan. The colossal statues of warriors shown here served as columns that supported the roof of a great temple.

7. Postclassic Mesoamerica, 1000–1500C.E. • The Aztec Rise to Power • Toltec collapse, c. 1150 • Caused by northern nomads? • Center moves to Mexico valley • Lakes used for fishing, farming, transportation • Aztecs in, early 14th century • Begin as mercenaries, allies • 1325, found Tenochtitlan • Dominate by 1434

8. Map 12.1 Central Mexico and Lake TexcocoAn aquatic environment at the heart of the Aztec empire.

9. Postclassic Mesoamerica, 1000–1500C.E. • The Aztec Social Contract • Transformation to hierarchical society • Service of gods pre-eminent • Sacrifice increased • Source of political power • Moctezuma II • Head of state and religion

10. Postclassic Mesoamerica, 1000–1500C.E. • Religion and the Ideology of Conquest • Spiritual and natural world seamless • Hundreds of deities • Three groups • Fertility, agriculture, water • Tlaloc • Creator gods • Warfare, sacrifice • Huitzilopochtli • Aztec tribal god • Identified with sun god

11. Figure 12.3 Human sacrifice was practiced by many Mesoamerican peoples, but the Aztecs apparently expanded its practice for political and religious reasons. This image shows Aztec priests cutting out their victims’ hearts and then rolling the bodies down the steps of the pyramid.(Ms. Magliabechiano: sacrificio umano azteco. Biblioteca Nazionale Firenze. Scala/Art Resource, NY.)

12. Postclassic Mesoamerica, 1000–1500C.E. • Religion and the Ideology of Conquest • Nezhualcoyotl • Sacrifice • Motivated by religion or possibly terror • Cyclical view of history

13. Figure 12.4 This Aztec stone calendar is about 12 feet across and 4 feet thick, and it weighs about 24 tons. It was unearthed accidentally by construction crews in Mexico City in 1790.

14. Postclassic Mesoamerica1000–1500C.E. • Feeding the People: The Economy of the Empire • Agriculture • Chinampas, man-made floating islands • High yield • Farming organized by clans • Markets • Daily market at Tlatelolco • Controlled by pochteca, merchant class • Regulated by state

15. Aztec Society in Transition • Society increasingly hierarchical • Widening Social Gulf • Calpulli • Transformed from clans to groupings by residence • Distribute land, labor • Maintain temples, schools • Basis of military organization

16. Aztec Society in Transition • Widening Social Gulf • Noble class develops from some calpulli • Military virtues give them status • Serf-like workers on their lands • Social gaps widen • Imperial family at head of pipiltin • Calpulli of merchants

17. Figure 12.5 In the militarized society of the Aztec empire, warriors were organized into regiments and groups distinguished by their uniforms. They gained rank and respect by capturing enemies for sacrifice. Note the symbolic gripping of the defeated captives’ hair as a sign of military success.

18. Aztec Society in Transition • Overcoming Technological Constraints • Women have various roles • Can own property • No public roles • Elite polygamy • Most monogamous • Lacked the wheel, suitable animals for power

19. Aztec Society in Transition • A Tribute Empire • Speaker • One rules each city-state • Great Speaker • Rules Tenochtitlan • Prime Minister powerful • Subjugated states could remain autonomous • Owe tribute, labor

20. Twantinsuyu:World of the Incas • Tihuanaco, Huari (c. 550-1000 C.E.) • After 1000, smaller regional states • Chimor (900-1465) • North coast of Peru

21. Twantinsuyu:World of the Incas • The Inca Rise to Power • Cuzco area • Quechua-speaking clans (ayllus) • Huari • Control regions by 1438, under Pachacuti • Topac Yupanqui • Son of Pachacuti • Conquered Chimor • Rule extended to Ecuador, Chile

22. Twantinsuyu:World of the Incas • The Inca Rise to Power • Huayna Capac • Furthers conquests of Topac Yupanqui • 1527, death • Twantinsuyu (empire) • From Colombia to Chile • To Bolivia, Argentina

23. Map 12.2 Inca ExpansionEach ruler expanded the empire in a series of campaigns to increase wealth and political control.

24. Visulizing the PastArcheological Evidence of Political PracticesChan-Chan covered more than 2 square miles. It contained palace compounds, storehouses, residences, markets, and other structures.

25. Visulizing the PastArcheological Evidence of Political PracticesCity of Chan-Chan.

26. Twantinsuyu:World of the Incas • Conquest and Religion • Split inheritance • Power to successor • Wealth, land to male descendants • Result is continual conquest

27. Twantinsuyu:World of the Incas • Conquest and Religion • Religion • Sun god supreme • Represented by ruler (Inca) • Temple of the Sun at Cuzco • Local gods survive • Huacas

28. Twantinsuyu:World of the Incas • The Techniques of Inca Imperial Rule • Inca • Rules from Cuzco • Governors of four provinces • Bureaucracy • Local rulers (curacas) • Unification • Quechua • Forced transfers

29. Twantinsuyu:World of the Incas • The Techniques of Inca Imperial Rule • Military • System of roads, way stations (tambos), storehouses • State • Redistributive economy • Mita • Building, irrigation projects

30. Twantinsuyu:World of the Incas • The Techniques of Inca Imperial Rule • Gender cooperation • Ideology of complementarity of sexes • Also seen in cosmology • Inca's senior wife links state to moon • Yanas

31. Map 12.3 The Ancient Cities of PeruThe Inca system of roads, with its series of tambos, linked major towns and cities and allowed rapid communication and troop movement.

32. The "Troubling" Civilizations of the Americas • Inca socialism and despotism • Cultural clash with the west • Violent customs • Ritual torture, human sacrifice • Moral judgment • West has history of sacrifice but deems it "barbaric" in Aztecs • Cannibalism • Possibly due to lack of cattle, sheep

33. Twantinsuyu:World of the Incas • Inca Cultural Achievements • Metallurgy • Knotted strings (quipu) • Accounting • Monumental architecture • Organization of labor

34. Figure 12.6 This Inca sculpture, made of gold, portrays one of the mamaconas, or “chosen women,” who served as concubines to the Inca emperors. The wool of her cloak is woven in a classic Inca design.

35. Twantinsuyu:World of the Incas • Comparing Incas and Aztecs • Similarities • Built on earlier empires • Excellent organizers • Intensive agriculture under state control • Redistributive economy • Kinship transformed to hierarchy • Ethnic groups allowed to survive

36. Twantinsuyu:World of the Incas • Comparing Incas and Aztecs • Differences • Aztecs have better developed trade, markets • Metallurgy • Writing systems • Social definition, hierarchy

37. The Other Peoples of the Americas • Great variety elsewhere • How Many People? • Larger densities in Mesoamerica, Andes • Compared • China, India: 75–150 million • Europe: 60–70 million • Americas: est. 60–70 million

38. Table 16.1 Population Estimate for the Western Hemisphere, 1492Sources: William M. Deneven, The Native Population of the Americas in 1492 (1976), 289–292; John D. Durand, “Historical Estimates of World Population,” Population and Development Review 3 (1957): 253–296; Russell Thornton, American Indian Holocaust and Survival (1987).

39. Table 16.2 World Population, c. 1500Sources: William M. Deneven, The Native Population of the Americas in 1492 (1976), 289–292; John D. Durand, “Historical Estimates of World Population,” Population and Development Review 3 (1957): 253–296; Russell Thornton, American Indian Holocaust and Survival (1987).

40. The Other Peoples of the Americas • Differing Cultural Patterns • Caribbean islands • Some similar to Polynesian societies • c. 1500 • 200 languages in North America • Mississipian mounds abandoned • Anasazi descendants along Rio Grande

41. Figure 12.7 Taos Pueblo, in the foothills of what is now New Mexico. The pueblos of the Rio Grande Valley were based on agriculture and the concentration of population in urban areas. This reflected a number of the traditions of the older Native American cultures of the southwestern United States.

42. The Other Peoples of the Americas • American Indian Diversity in World Context • Two great imperial systems by 1500 • Mesoamerica and the Andesweakened • Technologically behind Europeans