Pure Libertarianism 1 [Jan Narveson, Canada]

1. Pure Libertarianism 1[Jan Narveson, Canada] • Pure Libertarianism: a general right of liberty and nothing else. • My claim: liberty implies a strong right of property • Natural resources are just as ownable as labor • [In fact, labor is a “natural resource”] • Self-Ownership and Liberty • The thesis of self-ownership is that we literally own ourselves. • Ownership defined: To say that person A “owns” X is to say that A is morally permitted to do whatever he wishes with X, within the limits imposed by the rights of others: no other person may do anything to or with X without A’s permission (same caveat); or more precisely, without being (reasonably) sure of A’s permission, even if not actually secured at the time.

2. Pure Libertarianism 2 • self-ownership is no more or less than the General Liberty Principle • - A owns A = A is morally permitted to do with A whatever A wishes • But “doing something with oneself” is, simply, doing it. • Appeals to “Self-Ownership": Moral Theory • Is self-ownership fundamental, or is it “based on” something? • Two answers: • (a) self-possession distinguished from self-ownership • (b) The fundamental “why” in normative social theory is provided (I think) by the Social Contract • - It is in my interest that society should recognize me as “owning myself” -- i.e., having the general right of liberty • - and in my interest that it recognize all others as having the same right • My proposed answer to this: A’s acceptance of the principle in question is called for, given A’s (considered) values

3. Pure Libertarianism 3 • Self-interest: the interests of the self - • not necessarily the self’s interest in the self • Many people have moral preferences among their bundles of various preferences. • For our foundational purposes here, however, we must note that any such preferences are up for scrutiny. • Pure self-interest: affects only the individual who acts • [this is rare; but libertarianism affirms a right to this kind of action • Our preferences for what others do have no necessary weight with them • Moral principles require what other agents’ sets of values would also endorse. • [so, game theory] • Social Contract: What everyone would, in light of the general facts about other people and of their own preferences, accept as a basis for regulation of their behavior in relation to others

4. Pure Libertarianism 4 • Liberty • ( cf Jan Lester) is absence of imposed costs • [when the costs are imposed by the activities of others] • ‘imposed’ means that the agent doesn’t accept them as the price for being able to do what he wants • To be free in moral and political respects is, rather, to be free from the imposition of costs by other persons. • Natural Background to Self-Ownership • Self-possession is natural: my arms do what “I” tell them to (generally) • My relation to my arm can be like my relation to my car - both are external to me (my psychological decision-and-control apparatus) • Which brings us to the moral component of self-ownership, viz. rights to one’s self.

5. Pure Libertarianism 5 • The Right to Oneself • rights are entailed duties to others, namely to allow the right holder, R, to do what R is being said to have the right to do • (or, in the case of “positive” rights, to help enable the right holder to do what he is being said to have the right to do.) • More generally, R’s rights are P’s duties, where R is the right holder and P the persons with respect to whom, or over whom, R has the right in question • [and are expectedly preferable from R’s point of view • If our general right is the right to liberty, then positive rights are undercut. • My helping you, if involuntary, makes me worse off (in my view) • So liberty rights must be fundamentally negative • So Locke’s formulation: all are morally required to refrain from “harming others in respect of life, health, liberty, or property,” • The question:Does the special case of ownership of natural resources make a difference here?

6. Pure Libertarianism 6 • Relating to the World: Why may we acquire? • Some hold that natural resources are “common property” • To own anything is to be morally free to do as one wishes with that thing. • What is the basic case for asserting that individuals can come to own anything at all outside themselves? • Answer: individuals use things • In using things, we act; and we have a general right of freedom • Therefore (say we Lockean-types), we have a right to use what we do • So, the first-comer is the owner: he imposes no costs of others by coming to use, if he’s first • And do not thereby Deprive anyone of anything that they have ... • The claim that I impose a cost by depriving other people of the future use of the things I come to use - things which, by the way, they have never been anywhere near before - is incoherent: • Everyone always does this in doing anything • But nobody is entitled to any particular thing, antecedent to use and discovery

7. Pure Libertarianism 7 • Everyone’s being entitled to everything is equivalent to nobody’s being entitled to anything • If that were a legitimate argument, then the conclusion would have to be that on libertarian grounds, nobody may do anything ... • Example of Initial Acquisition: Birth: • I just am connected with [the rest of] myself • That is “first use,” (and “first occupancy”) in the most basic way that can be. • Property rights enable particular people to do particular things • - both now and later • General freedom consists in everyone’s refraining from making their way in the world at sheer cost to others • Rights, all of which are property rights, provide the basis against which we are all to work • If my doing x requires that you cease doing y, where y is itself a peaceful activity, then I must ask your permission, or make an offer that will make it worth your while to alter your plans so as to accommodate mine.

8. Pure Libertarianism 8 • Locke generalized • The basis of first-acquisition property rights: • given that this is • (a) what I am doing, and that • (b) I didn’t have to displace or injure anybody around to be doing it • (c) that I'd like to continue doing it • -> then anyone else who proposes to use these same things in ways inconsistent with my envisaged use, would be imposing a cost on me • - thus, infringing my liberty • Here We Are, with our various interests and desires and values and concerns, in light of which we act. • Here, likewise, are others with their rather different sets of interests. • Often our interests conflict • The libertarian principle is unique in saying that the right solution is to deny the would-be aggressor the right to aggress

9. Pure Libertarianism 9 • All interpersonal transactions are to be voluntary to those concerned • Land, Labor, and Capital? • We own whatever we engage with and utilize without thereby needing to impose on others. • From there on, legitimate acquisition is either by • (a) freely negotiated exchange • (b) being the fortunate object of someone else’s generosity, or by • (c) making it anew from things one already has acquired by one of the foregoing, including from the natural genetic lottery

10. Pure Libertarianism 10 • The contrary view [as held by “Left” Libertarians] • - there is a crucial disparity between • (a) what one creates with one’s own efforts, and • (b) what one acquires by being so fortunate as to be the sole previous occupant of a bit of natural stuff such as land • (c) or the discoverer of a previously unnoticed “natural resource.” • My view: no such distinction is relevant - • 1. Our bodies and minds, and our natural skills and the basic operating system of our natural software are of course uncreated by ourselves. • - they are “natural resources” • 2. All labor utilizes natural resources, not created by the laborer • (such as the brain and muscles that constitute his self) • 3. To do anything is to use a natural resource or resources in some way or other • 4. yet the proper owners of those resources acquire them by sheer luck. • -> the intended distinction is not sustainable in face of those facts.

11. Pure Libertarianism 11 • Locke’s argument, in other words, is basically right • Self-ownership is certainly not in virtue of something we have done to deserve it • our natural inheritance is natural, and is an “inheritance,” but nevertheless is ours, in the existential sense of being what we find ourselves equipped with. • And so the basis of the intended distinction seems to me to be simply unavailable. • We are connected to the various parts of ourselves just as we are connected to various bits of the external world: viz., by sheer accident, luck. • Partly we are so by just being connected by nature, • partly we become engaged by our intentional activitie • [as when we engage in exercise programs or eat carefully so as to improve or maintain bodily capabilities] • In like manner, when we cultivate the earth, or invent the telephone, or play the Appassionata Sonata superbly • Therefore no way to insist on separating them, with a view to legitimate imposition of costs on the basis of the one while denying legitimacy to such imposition on the basis of the other.

12. Pure Libertarianism 12 • In the three categories of • (a) laboring, • (b) renting what is legitimately acquired, and • (c) lending or investing capital, • - we always apply antecedently available natural and manmade resources to the situation before us, and do the best we can under the circumstances • [under the restriction of respecting the rights of all the others who are trying to do so as well]

13. Pure Libertarianism 13 • Economic Value • [as argued by Frederick Bastiat]1: no natural resource has any economic value, in and of itself • Natural resources have, indeed, utility, in the sense of potential usefulness • Technical know-how at some level is necessary for anything to be useful • But even so, utility is not economic value, just like that. • Economic value, rather, is [marginal] service • - the service that you, the potential purchaser, perceive would be done for you by someone else’s doing some particular thing.

14. Pure Libertarianism 14 • Transferring $X to someone does him a service • [That’s why he wants it!] • At some point, the prospect of the service you would thus do the seller is sufficient, in the seller’s view, to justify his doing the first service for you. • Often: the service will consist in transferring his right to some material item, be it a natural resource or otherwise, to the other transactee. • But at other times, it might be a service of some other kind, such as a performances of Bach’s Goldberg Variations. • It makes no difference, in principle, which it is • If I go to hear you play the piano, you do me a service though you leave me with no more material items in my possession than before (and, perhaps, somewhat less money).

15. Pure Libertarianism 15 • To realize the possible monetary gain, I must, of course, do something: sell or rent the area, or perhaps build on it and sell or rent the resulting assets. • And when I do such things, if I do, the economic value of what I then sell or rent, etc., lies in the service it would be to someone else, namely the purchaser. • Notice that “renting” is not a significantly distinct category • (In working some someone, we rent him our labor) • Argument: put together recognition of three things: • (1) the fact that economic value consists in services done or doable by people to and for each ot • (2) the fact that absolutely all (economically) valuable things require both human input and natural input, and finally • (3) acceptance of the general liberty principle • Inference: there is no fundamental difference among them..

16. Pure Libertarianism 16 • The Case for Liberty • The gain offered by the principle of liberty is peace, in effect. • A sacrifices A’s freedom to advance A’s ends by means that make B worse off; in return, B refrains from making A worse off • This is mutual peace; and the proposal here is that mutual peace is better than mutual war, from the point of view of any rational person. • Unilateral war, in which A wins, might be better for A • - it is denied that A can, in general, expect to win. • Especially, however, what is denied that is relevant to moral theory is that it is rational for us all, taken together, to let anybody win, without a fight. • And the side we, the “good guys,” should fight on is the side of peace. • Morality gangs up on people. • We may lose, but it is, I argue, rational to be

17. Pure Libertarianism 17 • Original Acquisition Redux • What service would a possessor be doing for someone else who offers a price for it? • Answer: letting him use it, • - that is, of stepping aside and not offering any resistance to the purchaser’s occupancy. • Saving you a lot of trouble and possible death is, surely, a service of a very valuable kind. • And why is that a “service”? • In the Hobbesian state of nature, anyone may do anything to anyone. The baseline is universal war. • So if you provide peace to me in this instance, you've done me a considerable service (and vice versa): we move from a baseline in which life is “mean, solitary, brutish, nasty, and short” • to one in which our efforts can actually get us somewhere. It probably means my life, for one thing!

18. Pure Libertarianism 18 • In general it means the possibility of getting on with my life • That this service is, in a sense, remarkably easy to perform doesn’t make it any less a service - it merely makes it less obvious that it is one. • In a “civilized condition,” we don’t need to resort to blows over possession of an acre of land. • we have a better way, namely productive effort, including purchase and rental • which enables the two of us to alter our previous conditions with mutual approval, and with both of us expectedly improving our situations as a result - at the expense of no one else • [And at their enormous potential gain, since this enables productive people to make beneficial exchanges with them]

19. Pure Libertarianism 19 • General Conclusion • Natural Resources Common Ownership cannot be made to fall out of the general liberty principle. • Rather, what comes from that principle is what has, very misleadingly, been dubbed “right libertarianism2 ” - or as I would prefer to term it, simply, “pure libertarianism.” • Pure libertarianism is the view that there are no other fundamental principles than the libertarian one, in regard to the use of coercive imposition against others. • That is to say, this is a view about justice only. • It is compatible with libertarianism to propose a set of virtues gooing beyond strict justice - a set of noncompulsive recommendations for others. • What is not compatible with libertarianism is to reinforce those proposals by the use of force against people.

20. Pure Libertarianism 20 • Pure libertarianism seems clearly to imply a general right of private property and acquisition of same. • As to “acquisition”: all of us are somewhere or other, and if we fantasize ourselves back to a “state of nature” in which, so far (we suppose) nothing is owned by anyone,4 an immediate installation of the libertarian principle would presumably leave everyone where he is, with the right that others not push him off. • The others do not get to “charge” more for not doing so. • Everyone charging everyone gets us where we were: mutual peace • The left-libertarian wants to give partial rights of control over natural resources to everybody • - including people who do not occupy them or possess them in any way, or have never heard of them or would have the faintest idea what to do with them even if they stared him right in the face, or indeed, in the overwhelming majority of cases, aren’t even born yet! • More precisely, Left-libertarians want to give people far more than they already have – for everyone, of course, is ipso facto a possessor and controller of a set of natural resources in his own body and mind. • But this further control is control that cuts right against liberty. • It puts us all in the power of everyone else

21. Pure Libertarianism 21 • It might be said that the fundamental service, as I have argued it is, of nonmolestation is performed without charge. But not so: it is performed on condition that others reciprocate. • My objection to the socialists is that they want to put an extra price on top of this very important but wholly natural and reasonable reciprocation. • The poor, on the left-libertarian theory, are allowed to threaten the rest of us if they don’t get quite a bit more in the way of services than the normal one of assured nonviolence to then nonviolent. • And that surely looks unreasonable. [As Nozick points out]

22. Pure Libertarianism 22 • Vallentyne is right to see that a justification of the state is required for his program. • I hold it to be very dubious that the state is justified in any case. • But if it is to be justified, there is only one way to do it: namely, to show that without the state, at least some people would be worse off without anyone’s being better off, by comparison with what they could have under the state. • I think it clear that any of the usual contemporary state functions cannot be justified in this way, so I am arguing totally hypothetically • But the abstract argument goes as follows: making the provision of service S involuntary would have to render a return to everyone that is superior to the return he or should could get in a voluntary system.7 • Is taxing only natural resources especially called for in order to meet the criterion imposed above? • No

23. Pure Libertarianism 23 • [An income tax, basically, would have a better chance of doing this. • Afte rall, natural resources, as pointed out, have no value except insofar as they are sources of income, • and they are sources of income only insofar as their owners use them for that purpose – which is true of anything you can name anyway. • Taxing income as such will tax all sources of income, including income from wages as well as rent or capital • I applaud Vallentyne and Steiner’s tendency toward universalism • But redistribution at a universal or global level is not going to work any better than redistribution at the national or (especially) the local level. • [more likely, much worse] • And the more local you get, the less plausible a single tax on resources is going to be.... • [End]