Introduction to English Syntax Level 1 Course

1. Introduction to English SyntaxLevel 1 Course Ron Kuzar Department of English Language and Literature University of Haifa Chapter 4 Major Sentence Patterns: Copular Sentences

2. Sentences with the Verb Be • The following sentence has the verb be: • Your child is respectful of others. • Could we say that be is its predicate? • Let us observe the behavior of the verb be.

3. Mystery No. 1 • It is summer. • It is an expletive subject. • It is hot. • It is an expletive subject. • Mary is a journalist. • Mary is a lexical subject. • What is the valency of be, if some sentences have an expletive subjects, others – a lexical subject?

4. Mystery No. 2 • Mary is a journalist. • Is a journalist an NP object? • Linda is in the room. • Is in the room an oblique object? • Steve is creative. • Is creative an AP object? • Is there such a thing as an AP object?

5. Be Is not a Predicate • If be is a predicate, it is a very strange one: • Sometimes it has an expletive subject, At other times – a lexical subject. • Sometimes it has an NP or PP “object”, At other times this “object” is an AP. But elsewhere APs can never be objects. • Hence: be is not a predicate. • Be is a grammatical element that links two sides of a syntactic equation. • Such a linking verb is called copula.

6. So What Is the Predicate? • Note that: • When the NP after the copula is Jounalist, a lexical subject is required: • Mary is a journalist. • When it is summer, an expletive is expected: • It is summer. • Hence, the N (head of NP) after the copulaselects the type of subject that goes with it. • This N is the predicate; it has valency.

7. Copular Sentence (Cop Sentence) • We have sentence patterns that use a copula. • These are the copular sentence patterns. • The head of the phrase following the copula is the predicate. • Hence, there are 3 copular sentence patterns: Nominal copular sentence, with N as predicate. Adjectival copular sentence, with A as predicate. Prepositional copular sentence, with P as predicate. • Let us have a look at each of them separately.

8. The N-Cop Sentence • Note: • This N also determines if it has an “object”. except that with Ns we don’t call it an object, but a complement. • The following N has a PP complement: • John is a teacher of Spanish. • Note the structural similarity between the following V vs. N-Cop sentences: • JohnteachesSpanish • Johnis a teacherof Spanish.

9. Noun Complements • There is a difference between objects of verbs and complements of nouns. • Objects are often required, and cannot be dropped, while noun complements are optional. • V-sentence: *John teaches… • N-Cop sentence John is a teacher. • Another complication is the position of the complement:a teacher of Englishan English teacher • We will ignore this latter option in our discussion.

10. The N-Cop Sentence Pattern • The maximal formula of an N-Cop sentence: NP (M) be[NPN PP] Subj. Mod. Cop Predicate Complement + Aux. • For example: Racismmustbeaproductof bad education. NP Subj. modalCop[NPDet. N PredicatePP complement]

11. Non-Maximal Realizations • The valency of N may be non-maximal. • There is no subject in zero-place predicates: • It is Monday Expl. Subj. Cop NP [Predicate] • Some Nouns do not have complements: • Our goal is fail-proof safety. NP Subj. Cop NP [Predicate]

12. The A-Cop Sentence Pattern • The maximal formula of an A-Cop sentence: NP (M) be[APA PP] Subj. Mod Cop Predicate Complement + Aux. • For example: My dog is fond of gym shoes. NP Subj. Cop [AP A Predicate PP Complement] • Very few adjectives have obligatory complements, e.g. fond of, due to, prone to, replete with, situated in/at/on/under, etc.

13. Non-Maximal Realizations • The valency of A may be non-maximal. • A zero-place predicate: It is cold. Expl. Subj. Cop [AP A Predicate] • Most adjectives do not have, or have optional complements: Her decision is final/independent. NP Subj. Cop [AP A Predicate]

14. The P-Cop Sentence Pattern • The maximal formula of a P-Cop sentence: NP (M) be [PPP NP/PP] Subj. Cop Predicate Complement • For example: The toaster is on the table This elevator is out of order. NP Subj. Cop [PP P Predicate NP/PP Complement]

15. Non-Maximal Realizations • The valency of P is rarely non-maximal. • Subjectless P predicates are extremely rare: It is on the verge of rain. Expl. Subj. Cop [PP P Predicate NP ] • Occasionally a P is without a complement: • The bikes are inNP Subj. Cop [PP P Predicate]

16. Here, There, and Away • In the P Cop sentence, here and there may replace a PP: • The book is on/under/near/at the table. • The book is here/there. • John is in town/on the roof/at home. • John is away. • Here,there, andaway are pro-forms.They stand for (Latin: pro) PPs. • They are pro-PPs

17. The Contextual Functionof Cop Sentences • Relative to the unmarked V sentence, the Cop sentences are marked,namely they have specific functions. • We have said that the V sentence is the skeleton of the narrative, reporting events. • But while reporting events, one needs occasionally to report a state. • Cop sentences report states. • ALL Cop sentence are marked for reporting states.

18. Terminological Note • Events and states share the fact thatthey have a time dimension,i.e. they last a certain time. The beginning and the end of an event are different. The beginning and the end of a state are identical.

19. States in the Narrative • What do states do in the narrative? • Have a look at the following part of a narrative.It contains only events, expressed through V sentences: (1) I arrived at 10:30pm to a dark town and damp air, and (2) turned north on the coast road. (3) A campground appeared around another corner. (4) The caretaker raised the bar and (5) I chose a spot beside a big camper next to the bathrooms. (6) The next day, I was going to travel along the waterline.

20. The Full Narrative • Now observe the same part of narrative with Cop sentences interspersed between the V sentences: (1) I arrived at 10:30pm to a dark town and damp air, and (2) turned north on the coast road. (3) The road was in bad shape and (4) the sky was black with night and low clouds. (5) A campground appeared around another corner. (6) The caretaker raised the bar and (7) I chose a spot beside a big camper next to the bathrooms. (8) The Costa Smerlda is a beautiful stretch of beach. (9) The next day, I was going to travel along the waterline.

21. The Sentential Functionof Cop Sentences • In terms of their internal structure, Cop sentences represent the assignment of the content of the predicate to the subject. • The copula serves as the assignment symbol. • The type of assignment is determined by the type of predicate: N, A, or P. • N assigns equivalence. • A assigns attribution. • P assigns relation.

22. The Sentential Function of the N-Cop Sentence • The following is an N-Cop sentence. • The Costa Smerlda is a beautiful stretch of beach. • Its specific function as such is to assign equation between the two NPs, the subject and the predicate. • “The costa Smerlda” is equivalent to “a beautiful stretch of beach”.

23. The Sentential Function of the A-Cop Sentence • The following is an A-Cop sentence. • The sky was black. • Its specific function as such is to assign the attribution of a property to an entity. • Adjectives express properties. Hence, the property of the AP predicate “black” is attributed to the NP subject “the sky”.

24. The Sentential Function of the P-Cop Sentence • The following is a P-Cop sentence. • The road was in bad shape. • Its specific function is to assign the relation expressed by the P predicate between the subject and the complement of P.the relation “in” is assigned between the subject “the road” and the complement of P “bad shape”.

25. States in V Sentences • The V sentence is the unmarked pattern. • As such it can also assume the functions of other patterns. • Observe the two sentences: • Cast iron is different from stainless steel. • Cast iron differs from stainless steel. • Both represent the same state • The Cop sentence pattern is designated to do so. • The V sentence does it as the unmarked pattern.

26. Sample Question • Identify the sentences descriptive of states. • Provide their patterns: One Saturday evening finally the day arrived. The air was full of electricity. Air raids came more often and one night some of the long awaited bombs hit the second barrack just behind ours. Luckily nobody was in it at the time. The guards distributed some food and conducted a roll call. During these exciting hours we were ready for any surprises and directions. Everybody was running back and forth. Clearly, some big plans were discussed. After another roll call, the guards got us into a line-up. We left Glowen. With heavy hearts, we started another long journey into the unknown. Our guards were still with us. Some very suddenly changed their uniform for civilian clothes. Hope and fear prevailed. The road was one big frightening trap.

27. Answer • A-Cop Sentence: The air was full of electricity. • P-Cop Sentence: Luckily nobody was in it at the time. • A-Cop Sentence: During these exciting hours, wewere ready for any surprises and directions. • P-Cop Sentence: Our guards were still with us. • V Sentence: Hope and fear prevailed. • N-Cop Sentence: The road was one big frightening trap.

28. Homework • Identify the sentences descriptive of states. • Provide their patterns: • Today we got up and headed straight for the Vatican. After a bit of wandering around we found the entrance to the Vatican Museum. The paintings, particularly the frescoes on the walls, were beautiful. The highlight, of course, was Michelangelo's painting on the ceiling of the Cistine Chapel. After the museum we walked to St. Peter's Square. St. Peter's Cathedral was certainly the largest cathedral we saw while in Italy. After St. Peter's we looked for St. Angelo's Castle and made it inside just as a thunderstorm swept in. We were in the castle for several hours and then strolled back to the hotel. [continued on next slide]

29. After changing clothes we searched for a restaurant near the Piazza Trilussi. Along the way we came across an old watchmaker's shop. The proprietor was into olden-days craftsmanship. He was in the midst of making an old style pendulum clock. The restaurant was closed for some reason so we picked another small restaurant in the neighborhood. Dinner was absolutely delicious. After dinner we walked along the Tiber river back toward the St. Angelo Castle and snapped a few more pictures before heading back to the hotel. This couldn’t have been a better day in Rome.