The Scientific Revolution

1. The Scientific Revolution Key Questions: • What were some new scientific theories and discoveries? • What were some of the effects of these new theories? • What was the new Scientific Method?

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3. Ancient scholars could provide no information about new lands, people, animals Age of Exploration led scientists to study natural world more closely Other things to be discovered, things unknown to ancients Navigators needed more accurate instruments, geographic knowledge Scientists examined natural world, found it did not match ancient beliefs Dawn of Modern Science

4. The Old View New Viewpoints • Scholars relied on traditional authorities for beliefs about structure of universe • Geocentric theory, Aristotle • Earth center of universe • Sun, moon, planets revolved around earth • Ideas upheld by church, accepted authority for European intellectuals • Scholars began to challenge traditional authorities, 1500s • Scientific Revolution, new way of thinking • Posed theories, developed procedures to test ideas • Why open to new ideas? • Exploration • New lands, new people, new animals Dawn of Modern Science Some Middle Ages scholars sought answers about the natural world from the church. In the mid-1500s, others began to think in new ways.

5. Scientific Method Scholars New Approach to Investigation • Francis Bacon, experimentation to gain scientific knowledge • Rene Descartes, reason key • Believed everything should be doubted until proved by reason • Relied on math, logic • Ideas of both continue to influence modern scientific methods • Scientific Method • Identify problem • Form hypothesis • Perform experiments to test hypothesis • Record results • Analyze results, form conclusion The Scientific Method

7. Find the Main Idea What was the Scientific Revolution? Answer(s): a new way of thinking about the natural world that challenged traditional views and instead relied upon experimentation

8. Discoveries in Astronomy, Physics, and Math • Early scientists • Made significant contributions in astronomy, physics and math • Began to explain complexities of solar system, limits of physical world • Nicolaus Copernicus, Polish astronomer, among first • Copernicus – 1400s • Found geocentric theory of movement of sun, moon, planets not accurate • Concluded sun, not earth, near center of solar system • Heliocentric theory, earth revolves around sun • Copernicus’ theory • Idea of earth orbiting sun was not completely new • Copernicus developed detailed mathematical explanation of process • Was first scientist to create complete model of solar system

9. On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres • Copernicus’ famous book not published until last year of his life • Knew church would oppose work • Work contradicted teachings of church

10. Observations • Brahe used observatories • Developed system to explain planetary movement • Believed sun revolved around earth • Other five known planets revolved around sun Brahe and Kepler: 1500s • Brahe, Danish Astronomer • Wrote book proving bright object over Denmark sky was newly visible star • Called it supernova, distant exploding star suddenly visible on earth • Book impressed Denmark’s King Frederick II • Gave Brahe money to build two observatories

11. Kepler, German Mathematician • Hired as Brahe’s assistant to form mathematical theory from measurements of planets • Published result of measurements of orbit of Mars after Brahe’s death

12. Kepler solved main problem of Copernican theory Copernicus assumed planets orbited in circle Kepler found assumption untrue Proved planets orbited in oval pattern, ellipse Wanted to prove Copernicus wrong, instead proved heliocentric theory correct Kepler’s mathematical solar system model also correct Kepler’s Solution

13. Discoveries in Astronomy, Physics, and Math • More support • Italian scientist Galileo Galilei • Built first telescope used for astronomy • Scanned heavens beginning in 1609 • Starry Messenger • Galileo described discoveries • Craters on moon, sunspots • Saturn, moons of Jupiter • Milky Way made up of stars • Change in science world • Isaac Newton, English scientist • Brought together astronomy, physics, math • Wondered about gravity • Principia • Book explained law of universal gravitation • Gravity affects objects on earth, also in universe • Keeps planets in orbit

14. Newton developed calculus, new kind of math Used calculus to predict effects of gravity German philosopher Gottfried von Leibniz also developed calculus at same time Each accused the other of plagiarism Historians believe it was simple case of independent discovery Newton’s Findings

15. Contrast How did Copernicus and Brahe differ in their views of the universe? Answer(s): Copernicus—all planets orbit the sun; Brahe—sun orbits Earth, other planets orbit sun

16. Science and the Church • Galileo’s Theories • Brought him into direct conflict with the church • Church leaders pressured him not to support ideas of Copernicus • Dialogue concerning Two Chief World Systems, 1632, showed support • Trial • Pope Urban VII ordered Galileo to Rome to stand trial before Inquisition • Church wanted to stamp out heresy, or dissenting views • Trial held, April 1633 • House Arrest • Galileo stated would not use Copernican theory in work • Received lenient sentence in return • Pope ordered Galileo under house arrest, where he spent rest of life

17. Biology Vesalius William Harvey • European Middle Ages doctors relied on Greek, Galen • Galen’s works inaccurate • Flemish doctor Andreas Vesalius became known for work in anatomy • Used bodies of executed criminals for dissection • Hired artists to produce accurate drawings • On the Workings of the Human Body, 1543 • English physician, early 1600s • Observed, explained workings of human heart • Described blood, circulatory system functions Discoveries in Biology and Chemistry Just as astronomers moved away from the works of ancient Greeks, other scientists used the scientific method to acquire new knowledge and make great discoveries in the fields of Biology and Chemistry.

18. Science and Art • Renaissance • Study of art, architecture not separate from study of science • Artists learned anatomy in order to paint the body • Artists • Experimented with chemistry of paints, nature of light • Used math to create compositions of perfect balance • Architecture • Mathematics, physics crucial to great architecture • Also used in engineering achievements of the time • Science and religion • Combined to produce great artistic achievements of Renaissance • Most art, architecture dedicated to glory of God

20. How did these discoveries help change the world?

21. Draw Conclusions How did the Scientific Revolution have an impact beyond the realm of science? Answer(s): led people to question the Church; inspired great artistic achievements; led to new ideas about government, religion, education, and economics.

22. The Enlightenment Who were some Enlightenment thinkers, and what were their ideas? How did philosophers of the Enlightenment influence thinking on political issues? How did the Enlightenment promote revolution in the American colonies?

23. The government it self, or the administration of its affairs, are better committed to one, then many. (Hobbes, Rudiments, x. 16. 163.) Any single man must judge for himself whether circumstances warrant obedience or resistance to the commands of the civil magistrate; we are all qualified, entitled, and morally obliged to evaluate the conduct of our rulers. This political judgment, moreover, is not simply or primarily a right, but like self-preservation, a duty to God. As such it is a judgment that men cannot part with according to the God of Nature. It is the first and foremost of our inalienable rights without which we can preserve no other.

24. The government it self, or the administration of its affairs, are better committed to one, then many. (Hobbes, Rudiments, x. 16. 163.) According to Hobbes, man in the state of nature seeks nothing but his own selfish pleasure, but such individualism naturally leads to a war in which every man's hand is against his neighbour. In pure self-interest and for self-preservation men entered into a compact by which they agreed to surrender part of their natural freedom to an absolute ruler in order to preserve the rest. The State determines what is just and unjust, right and wrong; and the strong arm of the law provides the ultimate sanction for right conduct. (Catholic Encyclopaedia: Obligation, 1911)

25. Any single man must judge for himself whether circumstances warrant obedience or resistance to the commands of the civil magistrate; we are all qualified, entitled, and morally obliged to evaluate the conduct of our rulers. This political judgment, moreover, is not simply or primarily a right, but like self-preservation, a duty to God. As such it is a judgment that men cannot part with according to the God of Nature. It is the first and foremost of our inalienable rights without which we can preserve no other. The power of the legislative being derived from the people by a positive voluntary grant and institution, can be no other than what that positive grant conveyed, which being only to make laws, and not to make legislators, the legislative can have no power to transfer their authority of making laws, and place it in other hands.

26. Scientific Revolution convinced many European thinkers about power of reason Scientific method and reason led to discoveries about physical world Wondered if reason could be used to study human nature, society New generation of philosophers, 1600s Viewed reason as best way to understand truth Concluded reason could be used to solve all human problems This time of optimism now called the Enlightenment The Age of Reason

27. Peak of Enlightenment Ideas of Enlightenment • Reached peak in 1700s • Paris, center of intellectual activity • Parisian women hosted social gatherings, salons • Philosophers, artists, scientists, writers regularly discussed ideas • Educated people throughout Europe, beyond, inspired • Held notion that world problems could be solved • New ideas debated in coffeehouses, public spaces • Writers published ideas in books, magazines, pamphlets The Age of Reason

28. Find the Main Idea What exciting conclusion did philosophers reach during the Enlightenment? Answer(s): Reason could be used to solve all human problems.

29. Reforms Revolutions • Belief in progress spurred many to enact reforms • Believed reason could solve any problem, debated ways to make society more just • Did not accept poverty, ignorance, inequality as facts of life • Ideas about power, authority inspired reforms and revolutions • American colonists inspired to break free from British monarchy • Colonists strongly influenced by political views of Locke, Rousseau Enlightenment Ideas Spread • Challenged Beliefs • Writers, philosophers questioned ideas long held as absolute truth • Challenged beliefs in absolute monarchies • Questioned relationship between church and state • Debated rules and rights of people in society • Promoted ideas reformers and revolutionaries would later use to change society

30. Thomas Hobbes John Locke • English thinker, wrote views of government in Leviathan • Absolute monarchy best • Believed people needed government to impose order • People selfish, greedy • Should exchange some freedoms for peace, safety, order • Social contract • English philosopher, believed all people born equal • Government should protect people’s natural rights • Monarchs not chosen by God • Government by consent • Power limited by laws • Ideas foundation for modern democracy New Views on Government As the Enlightenment began, European thinkers began looking for ways to apply reason in order to improve the human condition.

31. Jean-Jacques Rousseau • French philosopher, believed people basically good • Believed society corrupted people • Wrote The Social Contract, contract between all members of society • “Man is born free but everywhere is in chains.” • View of Government, Society • Believed government should work for common good, not wealthy few • Individuals should give up some freedoms for benefit of community • Despised inequality in society • Views inspired revolutionaries in years to come

32. Baron de Montesquieu • Separation of powers • Best form of government divided power among branches of government • Separation of powers kept individual or group from abusing power • The Spirit of the Laws • Published 1748, showed admiration of Great Britain’s government • Powers divided into branches: legislative, executive, judicial • Parliament made laws, king carried out laws, courts interpreted laws • Checks and balances • Misunderstood structure of British government, rational conclusion anyway • Separation of powers allowed each branch to check against power of others • Concept later important structure of democratic governments

33. Some Enlightenment philosophers focused on government, others on issues in society Francois-Marie Arouet, wroteas Voltaire Outspoken philosopher, wrote with biting wit Attacked injustice among nobility, government, church Created enemies, imprisoned twice Exiled to England for two years Defended principles, fought superstition, ignorance Lifelong struggle for justice, toleration, liberty New Views on Society

34. New Views on Society • Diderot • French philosopher • Determined in mid-1700s to try to compile great expansion of human knowledge into a single work • Encyclopedia • Diderot’s extensive 35-volume work, to promote knowledge • Explained new ideas about art, science, government, religion • Lifelong work • Worked on Encyclopedia 27 years, last volume published 1772 • Spread Enlightenment ideas across Europe, North America • Attacks by French leaders • Criticisms of church, government, legal system • Tried to stop publication, 1759 • Last volumes completed in secret, but immediate success

35. Mary Wollstonecraft • Enlightenment thinkers still held traditional views about women • Proper roles wives, mothers; should receive limited education • Wollstonecraft demanded equal rights for women • A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, equal education for women • Adam Smith • Scottish economist, used reason to analyze economic systems • The Wealth of Nations advanced free market enterprise • Strong believer in laissez-faire economics, no government regulation • Believed economy would be stronger if market forces of supply and demand were allowed to work freely

36. Summarize How did philosophers challenge the accepted way of life in Europe? Answer(s): They challenged the domination of the nobility and mostly argued that all men are equal.

37. Prussia Reforms Limitations • Frederick II, had duty to rule with absolute power • Also strongly influenced by ideas of Voltaire • Built powerful military, introduced reforms • Elementary education for all children • Abolished torture • Supported most forms of religious tolerance • Reduced censorship • No religious tolerance for Jews • Opposed serfdom, did not abolish • Did not make reforms to achieve justice but to make own rule more powerful Enlightenment Ideas Spread The spirit of optimism quickly spread throughout Europe. A few monarchs became enlightened despots, changing their systems of government and ruling according to Enlightenment ideas.

38. Enlightenment Ideas Spread • Russia • Catherine II became ruler, 1762 • Dreamed of establishing order, justice, supporting education, culture • Reforms • Drafted Russian constitution, code of laws • Considered too liberal, never put into practice • Limitations • Intended to free serfs, but would lose support of wealthy landowners • Catherine had no intention of giving up power • Became tyrant, imposed serfdom on more Russians than ever before

39. Most radical enlightened despot, Austria Joseph II, became emperor 1780 Ambitious reform program Eliminated torture, death penalty Provided free food, medicine for poor Granted religious tolerance to Protestants and Jews Abolished serfdom, laborers to be paid Changes resisted by nobility, church Enlightenment Ideas Spread