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Chapter Two:

Chapter Two:. Theories of Development. Developmental theory —systematic statement of principles and generalizations that provides a coherent framework for studying development. What Theories Do. What Theories Do, cont. Theories

tanisha-gilliam
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Chapter Two:

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  1. Chapter Two: Theories of Development

  2. Developmental theory—systematic statement of principles and generalizations that provides a coherent framework for studying development What Theories Do

  3. What Theories Do, cont. • Theories • form basis for hypotheses that can be tested by research studies • formulating right question is more difficult that finding right answers • generate discoveries • offer insight and guidance by providing coherent view

  4. What Theories Do, cont. • Different Types • grand theories—comprehensive, traditional theories • originated in psychology • minitheories—theories that focus on specific area of development • originated more in sociology through study of social groups and family structures • emergent theories—new, comprehensive groupings of minitheories • multidisciplinary approach includes historic events and genetic discoveries

  5. Grand Theories Grand Theories—powerful framework for interpreting and understanding change and development that applies to all individuals in all contexts, across all contents

  6. Psychoanalytic theory interprets human development in terms of motives and drives Psychoanalytic Theory

  7. Freud’s Ideas Sigmund Freud Three stages of development in first six years oral, anal, phallic in early childhood, latency and then adolescence, genital each stage includes potential conflicts how a person experiences and resolves conflicts determines personality and patterns of behavior

  8. Erikson’s Ideas Erik Erikson, a follower of Freud, proposed 8 developmental stages, each characterized by a developmental crisis trust vs. mistrust autonomy vs. shame initiative vs. guilt industry vs. inferiority identity vs. role diffusion intimacy vs. isolation generativity vs. stagnation integrity vs. despair

  9. Behaviorism is built on laws of behavior and processes by which behavior is learned focus: ways we learn specific behaviors that can be described, analyzed, and predicted with scientific accuracy Behaviorism

  10. Conditioning—any process in which behavior is learned Classical conditioning—Ivan Pavlov process by which a neutral stimulus become associated with a meaningful stimulus stimulus and response (respondent conditioning) Operant conditioning—B. F. Skinner process by which a response is gradually learned via reinforcement or punishment also called instrumental conditioning Laws of Behavior

  11. Social Learning Extension of learning theory that includes modeling which involves people observing behavior and patterning their own after it Modeling process in which people observe, then copy behavior Alfred Bandura—most likely to occur if model is admired or observer is inexperienced self-efficacy motivates people to change themselves and their contexts

  12. Focuses on the structure and development of thought processes, which shape perceptions, attitudes, and actions. Jean Piaget’s 4 Stages sensorimotor pre-operational concrete operational formal operational Cognitive Theory

  13. Cognitive Theory, cont. • Cognitive equilibrium—state of mental balance • Cognitive adaptation—assimilation, accommodation of ideas

  14. Emergent theories arise from several accumulated minitheories and may be the new systematic and comprehensive theories of the future Emergent Theories

  15. Sociocultural Theory Seeks to explain growth of individual knowledge, development, and competencies in terms of guidance, support, and structure supplied by the society human development is the result of dynamic interaction of the developing persons and their surrounding culture

  16. Guided participation—tutor engages learner in joint activities, providing instruction and direct involvement in learning Apprenticeship in thinking—mentor provides instruction and support needed by novice Guided Participation

  17. Zone of proximal development—range of skills learner can perform with assistance but not independently learner is drawn into learning by teacher Cultural variations: Basic principles are universal, but skills, challenges, and opportunities vary from culture to culture, depending on the values and structures of the culture’s society The Zone of Proximal Development

  18. Epigenetic Theory Emphasizes the interaction between genes and the environment—the newest developmental theory stresses that we have powerful instincts and abilities that arise from our biological heritage. Timing and pace of certain developmental changes are genetically guided performism—everything is set in advance by genes and then is gradually manifested in the course of maturation

  19. Genetic refers to the entire genome that makes up the particular genes that cause each person to be unique each human has a genetic foundation that is unique epigenetic theory acknowledges the powerful instincts and abilities that arise from our biological heritage With, On, and Around the Genes

  20. With, On, and Around the Genes, cont. • Epi = with, around, before, after, on, or near = surrounding factors • epigenetic—surrounding factors that affect expression of genetic instructions • some surrounding factors may be stress factors; others may be facilitating factors • Genetic-environmental Interactions • genes never function alone

  21. Adaptation of the Genes selective adaptation means that genes for the traits that are most useful will become more frequent, thus making survival of species more likely Genetic Adaptation

  22. What Theories Can Contribute Psychoanalytic theory has made us aware of importance of early childhood experiences Behaviorism has shown effect of immediate environment on learning Cognitive theory helps us understand how intellectual process and thinking affect actions

  23. What Theories Can Contribute, cont. • Sociocultural theory has reminded us that development is embedded in a rich and multifaceted context • Epigenetic theory emphasizes interactions between inherited forces and immediate contexts

  24. Other Theories • Brief Solution Focused • Narrative • Art • Play • PsychoDrama • Object-Relations • Jungian • Transactional Analysis • 12 - step • Social Learning • Biblio-therapy

  25. What Theories Can Contribute, cont. • Eclectic perspective • approach taken by most developmentalists in which they apply aspects of each of the various theories rather than staying with just one • “Integrated” is better

  26. Eclectic verses Integrated • Eclectic picks from multiple sources without common thread:

  27. Integration • Integration picks from theories with purpose and with commonality

  28. Level of Concepts

  29. The Nature-Nurture Controversy Is it heredity or environment that shapes us? How much is a result of any given characteristics, behavior or pattern of development is a result of genes and how much is a result of experiences Policy and practice: nature/nurture theories are implicit in many public policies

  30. AD/HD and homosexuality—How and to what extent are nature and nurture involved in each case? Evidence from AD/HD research that it can come from either Theoretical Perspectives on Hyperactivity and Homosexuality

  31. Theoretical Perspectives on Hyperactivity and Homosexuality, cont. • Earlier assumptions about homosexuality: more nurture than nature. As hypotheses tested, nurture was revealed as less crucial • sexual orientation may be a matter of nature • sexual expression may be a matter of cultural attitude (nurture) but not sexual orientation • evidence supporting nature as main factor (e.g., affect of genetic linkage, prenatal hormones)

  32. Theoretical Perspectives on Hyperactivity and Homosexuality, cont. • Ideology often adds to complexity and polarization of opinions on many subjects when nature and nurture are considered • Important to separate assumptions from facts • done via research and testing of hypotheses

  33. Chapter Three: Heredity and Environment

  34. The Genetic Code Development that is dynamic, ongoing, interactional, and unique; just four chemicals are the basic building blocks of the genetic code

  35. What Genes Are • Genes are made up of DNA—the complex protein code of genetic information • DNA directs the form and function of each body cell as it develops

  36. What Genes Are, cont. • Each molecule of DNA is called a chromosome • Chromosomes contain instructions to make all the proteins a living being needs • The complete packet of instructions is called a genome • Each person has 23 sets of chromosomes, or 46 chromosomes • The human genome contains 30,000 genes

  37. The Beginnings of Human Life • Gamete—reproductive cell that directs process by which genetic information combined and transmitted • Father gametes—sperm • Mother gametes—ovum

  38. Zygote and Genotype • Male and female gametes fuse and become a zygote • Zygote begins process of duplication and division • two reproductive cells • Genotype—the genetic information from the 46 chromosomes • set at human conception and endures through life

  39. Sex Determination and Sex Ratio • Of 22 out of 23 pairs of human chromosome, the matching chromosomes are very closely matched • but not identical • some genes come in slight, normal variations called alleles • The 23rd pair is different • in females, it is designated XX • in males, it is designated XY

  40. Sex Determination and Sex Ratio, cont. • Females always contribute one X • Males will have 1/2 of the sperm contributing an X and the other half contributing a Y • Critical factor in determining the sex of a zygote is which sperm reaches the ovum first

  41. Sex Determination and Sex Ratio, cont. • Other factors include • rarely, male sperm may only carry either X or Y • sometimes a woman’s uterus either unusually alkaline or acid, giving either an X or Y sperm an advantage • in a stressful pregnancy XY embryos are more likely to be expelled than are XX embryos in a spontaneous abortion, or miscarriage • current sex ratio in United States is 52 males to 48 females

  42. Multiple Zygotes Monozygotic twins—identical twins (or quadruplets) originate from one zygote share identical instructions possibility of cloning 1/3 of twins monozygotic

  43. Multiple Zygotes, cont. • Dizygotic twins—from two separate zygotes • Dizygotic births occur once in every 60 births, and occur as frequently as 1 in 6 pregnancies, but usually only 1 twin develops past embryo stage

  44. Multiple Zygotes, cont. • Dizygotic twins • women in late 30’s are three times more likely to have dizygotic twins • as menopause approaches, ovulation becomes irregular with some cycles producing no ovas and others producing multiple ovas • share no more genes than other offspring (about 50 percent) • 50 percent of the time one twin is male

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