Palaeolinguistics – war and peace

1. Institut for Nordiske Studier og Sprogvidenskab Palaeolinguistics – war and peace • Army: • *kor(i̯)os: OP kāra- ’people, army’, MIr. cuire, Goth. harjis, Lith. kãrias ’army’ (and kãras’war’); • From this ‘the leader of the army’: ON Herjann, epithet of Odin, Gk. Koiranos and Bret. ethnonymKorionotota • Denom.: ON. herja’to causehavoc, vandalize’; a *koriosis the same as a ”Männerbund” • Cf. alsopersonalnamessuch as ON Herjólfr, OEHerewolf; Gk. Koirómakhos, perhaps Lat. Coriolānus (< *-lasno-’eager, greedy for?) – but whatabout the name of the townCorioli? • Gauliccompounds Vo-corii, Tri-corii, Petru-cori, units of two, three, fourwarriors

2. Institut for Nordiske Studier og Sprogvidenskab War and peace • In Germanic and Greek tradition har similargroups, thus the Greek ephebesaged 16-25, living in the woods and wearing woolf- or bearskin. • With a similarmeaning Skt. márya- ’young man’ usedaboutIndra’sfollowers, cf. Av. mairiio’rascal, bandit’, perhaps OIr. muire’leader’ • Bleachedsemantics in Gk. meirax ’young person’, lat. marītus’married’ (about men) • Perhaps alsoMitannima-ri-ia-an-nu ’group of chariot fighters’, OP marīka- ’member of an escort’ • *lah2u̯ós: Gk. laós ’people’; pl. ’army’, Myc. ra-wa-ke-ta ’leader of the people/army’, leízomai ‘vandalize’, Phryg. lawagtaei’leader of the army’. • The base word is assumed in Hitt. lahha- ’campaign’

3. Institut for Nordiske Studier og Sprogvidenskab The Germanictribes • Ynglinga saga: ”(Odin’s men) used to go withoutpreastplates, furious as dogs or wolves, biting theirshilds, strong as bears or bulls; theyslew men, and neither fire nor swordcouldinjurethem – thiswascalledberserksgangr”. • Alsocalledúlfhednar ‘woolf-skinned’, cf. Skr. Vrkajina- ‘wolfskin’ • The Greek battle-fury is calledlússa, a derivative of lúkos ‘woolf’

4. Institut for Nordiske Studier og Sprogvidenskab The cattle raids • Skt. gavisti- lit. ‘desire for cows’ typicallysignifies an expedition to winthem • RV 10.38: ”In thisgloriousbattle, Indra, • This energetic tumult, urgeus to win, • In the cattle raid whereamong the bold beringed ones • The arrows fly in all directions for men’sdefeat”. • Irish saga, TáinbóCúailnge (The cattle-raid of Cooley) • But Avestan: ”I abjurethievery and cattle-raiding …”

5. Institut for Nordiske Studier og Sprogvidenskab War and peace • *teu̯táh-, on the contrary, denotes the people as consisting of free, especiallymarried (Osc. touto, OIr. túath, Goth. þiuda(whenceþiudans’king’), Lith. tautà) • Traditionallycompared with Hitt. tuzzi- ’army; camp’ < *teuti-; the counter-arguments (Kloekhorst) do not seemcompelling: *teutā a substratum word (why?); semanticdevelopment ’people’ > ’camp’ unlikely (but couldn’t the Hittitemeaningbe original?) • Alternative explanation(Melchert): *dhh1-uti-to kattadai-’siege’ • Anotherword for leader (of the army): *h2aĝos: Skt. ajá-, Gk. agos; cf. alsocompoundsMyc. ra-wa-ke-ta, Gk. stragegós, Skr. pṛtanaj- ’leadinginto fight’

6. Institut for Nordiske Studier og Sprogvidenskab War and peace • Anotherword for leader perhaps *u̯n̥-ә2g’-t-? Skt. van-íj- ’merchant’, also an epithet of Indra (AV 3.15.1) : Gk. vanax, -ktos ‘ruler’ • The leader of a *teu̯tah2, on the contrary, is the *h3rēĝs (McCone)

7. Institut for Nordiske Studier og Sprogvidenskab Weapons • Sword, dagger: *hn̥sis: Pal. hasīra- ’dagger’, Skt. así- ’sword, slaughterknife’, Av. aŋhū ’sword’, Lat. ēnsis’sword’; the character of the laryngealuncertain (Pal. vs. Lat.) • *skVlmah2- (?): Thrac. skalme ’sword, knife’, ON. skǫlm’sword’. • Knife:*u̯ēben-: Toch.A.B. yepe’knife’, Goth. pl. wēpna, ON vápn; what is Gk. hópla ‘weapons’? • *k’әstrom: skr. śastra- ’knife, dagger’, Lat. *castrum ’knife’ → castrāre ‘prune; castrate’ (also castrum (cutting>) ’camp’

8. Institut for Nordiske Studier og Sprogvidenskab Weapons • Metal knives areknown from South East Europe from about3500 f.Kr, but someweapons and toolsmayoriginally have been made of flint. • Cf. perhaps Arm. gerandi’sickle’, if < *gherń̥tio- : Gk. kherás, -ádos ’gravel’ • Spear:*gwéru- : Av. grauua- (< *gwreu̯o-) ’staff’, lat. verū ’spear’, Umbr. berva’lance’, OIr. biur’spear’, perhaps Goth. qairu’thorn, point’ (uncertainreading)

9. Institut for Nordiske Studier og Sprogvidenskab Weapons • *h2ai̯k’smo-/ah2-: Gk. aihmé ’spear, point of a spear’, OPr.aysmis, Lith. iẽšmas’spit, skewer’ • *k’úhlos: Skt. śula- ’spear, lance’, arm. slakc’spear, dagger, arrow’ (probably= Lat. cūlex’mosquito’) • *ĝhai̯sós: Skt. héṣas- ’missle’, Gk. khaíos ’pastoral staff’, Gallo-Rom. gaesum, OIr. gae’spear’, OE. gār’spear’; Goth. PN Gaisa-reix • *k’elh-: Skt. śalá- ’staff’, śaylá- ’spear’, Gk. kéla ’arrowshafts’, Alb. thel’large nail, spear’, MIr. cáil’spea’, ON hali’spear, tail’, OPr.kelian ‘spear’

10. Institut for Nordiske Studier og Sprogvidenskab Axe and club • Axe:*h2edhés-: Hitt. ates-, atessa-, OE adesa (> Eng. adze) • *tek’s(l)o/-ah2-: Av. taša-, OIr. tál, OHG dehsala, Russ.CS. tesla ‘axe’ • Also old borrowings: *pelek’u- (Skt. paraśu-, Myc. pe-re-ke-we, Gk. pélekus ’axe’ (both tool and war-axe), : Akk. pilakku’axe’ (?), perhaps Sum. balag’spindle’ • *sekur-: Lat. secūris, OCS sekyra’axe’ : Akk. šukurru’axe’ • Club, thunderbolt:*u̯aĝro-: Skt. vajra-, Av. vazra- (loanword: Toch.ABwāśir’thunderbolt’, Finn. vasara ’hammer’), Gk. PN Meléagros. Perhaps Germ. PN Odoacer, OE Eadwacer < *audawakraz ‘rich in weapons’

11. Institut for Nordiske Studier og Sprogvidenskab Bow and arrow • *gwii̯o-/-ah2 ‘bowstring’: Skt. jya, Gk. Biós • *h1isus ‘arrow’: Skt. iśú-, Av. išu-, gr. ἰός • Also*toksom ‘bow’ (MP taxš, Gk. tóxon) as a specialsemanticdevelopment of ’yew’

12. Institut for Nordiske Studier og Sprogvidenskab Weapons and names • PN Gk. Douriklutos ‘spear-famed’, Klutótoxos ‘bow-famed’ (Apollo) • Skt. Srutáratha- ‘chariot-famed’ • And epithets of the weapons, e.g. Miollnir ‘mordgiarn’ (eager to kill’), OEspear ‘wælgifru’ (greedy for carnage) • Indian arrows‘drink blood’ and Homericspears ‘yearn to gettheirfill for flesh’

13. Institut for Nordiske Studier og Sprogvidenskab Dialoguesbetween the warriors • Il. 6. 123ff (Diomedes to Glaucus): • ”Whoareyou, mygoodfellow, of mortal men? • Unfortunatearetheywholsesonscomeagainstmyfury” • Shah-name: ”What is yourname? Who is it that must weep over thyheadlessbody”? • Táin: ”Weshall not part likethisuntil I carryoffyour head or until I leavemy head with your”.

14. Institut for Nordiske Studier og Sprogvidenskab Loot and captives • Loot:*seru: Hitt. sāru’loot’, especially men and cattle, vb. saruwai’to plunder, pillage’ • Derivative *seru̯o/ah2- > OIr. serf’theft’, W. herw’predatoryexpedition’; Lat. servuscouldbeincluded, but thereareotherpossibilities(*serhu- ’takecare of’) • Prisoner of war:*kaptos: Lat. captus, OIr. cacht, W. caeth, ON haftr – dialectallylimited.

15. Institut for Nordiske Studier og Sprogvidenskab Victory • *seĝh- ‘conquer’: the base meaning of the verb is ‘to hold’ • hence s-stem *seĝhos> skr. sahas- ’victory’, Av. hazah- ‘act of violence’, Goth. sigis’victory’ • *seĝhu̯r̥ → Skt. sahuri- ’victorious’, Gk. hekhurós ’strong’; cf. also the PN Hektor • Alsopersonalnamessuch as Gaul. Segomarus, OHG. Sigwart, ON Sigurðr

16. Institut for Nordiske Studier og Sprogvidenskab The god of war • *māu̯ort-: OLat. Māvors, laterMars, vs. Osc. Māmers, Carmen Arvale: Marmar, Etrusc. Marmarce • Sometimescompared with Ved. marutaḥ ’crowd of war gods, associated with either the wind, Vāyu-, or Indra • The original function of Mars is debatable, perhaps an agricultural god? • Cf. the ritual text of the Fratres Arvales’, recorded218 AD, but partlyincomprehensible at the time: • Enos Lasesiuuate …. ’helpus, lares’ (3x) • Neue lue, neuerue’neitherfailure of the crops nor misfortune’ • … saturfu, fere Mars (3x) ’becontent, wild Mars’ • Enos Marmor iuuato’let Mars helpus’ (3x) • Triumpe (5x)

17. Institut for Nordiske Studier og Sprogvidenskab War and peace • Independence: *su̯e-dheh1-: Ved. svadha-’independence, custom’, Gk. éthos ’custom’, Lat. suodales’members of a brotherhood’ • Fight: *h2aĝ-: Toch.B. āk’zeal’, Skt. āji- ’competition, fight’, Gk. agón ’competition, fight’, MIr. ág’fight’ • *i̯eu̯dh-: Toch.A. yutk- ’worry’, Skt. yudhyáti, Vv. yūiδiieiti’fight’, Gk, husméne, Lat. iūbeō ’command’ (makemove and fight’), lit. judù’move’ • *katu-: OIr. cath’battle’, OHG. hadu’fight’, OCS. kotora’fight’. • Personal names in Celtic and Germanic, e.g. Gaul. Caturix : Germ. Hadu-rih

18. Institut for Nordiske Studier og Sprogvidenskab Sickness and health • Sickness • *su̯ergho-: Toch.A. särk, OIr. serg‘sickness’, Lith. sergù‘I am ill’ • *h3ligo-: Gk. loigós ‘destruction, death’, Alb. lig ‘ill; skinny’, Lith. ligà’sickness’; but Toch.A. lykäly’small, fine’,Gk. olígoi ’few’ • *h1ermen-: Hitt. erman-/armn- (*h1érmn, *h1r̥méns) ’illness’, Arm. ołorm’compassion’, Goth. arms ’poor’, arma-hairts’merciful’; from erman- probablyalsoarmae- ’bepregnant’and perhaps evenarma- ’moon, moon god’ • *seu̯g-: Arm. hiwcanim’beill’, Goth. siuks’ill’, OHG. suhtillness’ • ‘

19. Institut for Nordiske Studier og Sprogvidenskab Skin diseases • Rash:*de-dru-: Skt. dadru-, dadruka-, OE. teter, OHG. zittaroh, German Zitterich (reduplicated formation from*der- ’tear (the skin)’ • Crust of a wound: Gaul. crupellarii’armoured gladiators’, ON hrúfa’wound’ (OHG ge-rob > grob), Lith. kraupùs’rough’, Latv. kraupa ’wart’ • Wart:*uer-(d)-: NP balū, Lat. verrūca, ON. varta’wart’, Russ. vered’boil’; Arm. xaławart’boil, blister’ perhaps Iranianloanxała- : Av. xvara- ’sår’ + *vard-

20. Institut for Nordiske Studier og Sprogvidenskab Wounds and ulcers • Wound, *h1elkos: Skt. árśas- ’hemorrhoid’, Gk. hélkos ’supporatingwound’, Lat. ulcus’wound’ (henceulciscor’takerevenge’) • (Supporating) wound: *su̯ero- : Av. xvara- ’wound’, W. chwarren’supporatingwound’, OHG. swero’pain’ • Wound: *u̯olno- etc.: Gk. oulé, Lat. volnus’wound’ vs. Skt. vraṇá-, Russ. rana’wound’; Cf. alsoOIr. fuili’bleedingwounds’, W. gweli’wound; blood’ • Scar (?): *(h2)aru(s)-: Skt. áruṣ- ‘wound’, ON (*arwi- >) ǿrr‘scar’

21. Institut for Nordiske Studier og Sprogvidenskab Blindness • Blind: *(h2)andho-: Skt. andhá-, Av. anda- ’blind’, Gaul. andabata- ’gladiator wearing a helmet that covers the eyes’ • One-eyed, cockeyed (?): *ke/olno-: Skt. kāṇá-, Gk. kellás ’one-eyed’, OIr. coll’having lost one’s right eye’; with *s-: OHG. scëlah, Arm. šil’cockeyed’ • One-eyed, cockeyed (?):*kái̯ko-: Skt. kekara- ’cockeyed’, Lat. caecus ’blind’, OIr. cáech’one-eyed’, Goth. haihs‘one-eyed’ • The one-eyed god/sage: Odin (as opposed to the one-handedTyr); Skt. Bhaga; Roman legendaryheroes: the one-eyedHoratiusCoclesprevents the attack of the Etruscans; MuciusScaevola; Celticnames of druids in Dall- ’blind’; NB: same stem for ’eye’ and ’source’ is reminiscent of Odin at Mimer’swell.

22. Institut for Nordiske Studier og Sprogvidenskab Deaf, dumb and crazy • Deaf: *bhodhxró-: Skt. badhirá-, OIr. bodar • Dumb: *mū-: Skt. muka-, Gk. mukós, Arm. munĵ, Lat. mūtus • Stupid: *muh3ró-: Skt. mūrá- = Gk. mōrós • Gk. seleniakós ‘moonsick, mad’; Arm. lusnotand Lat. lunāticusprobablycalques

23. Institut for Nordiske Studier og Sprogvidenskab Suffixesdenotingillness and frailty • Lat. -āc-/-īc-, -ūc- vs. -(-āgō), especially-īgō, -ūgō • e.g. lumbāgō; (appendix vs.) pendīgō ’svulst’, impetīx, impetīgō ’rash’, intertrīgō ’sore, red skin as a consequence of scratching’, lentīgō ’freckles’, robīgō ’all sorts of diseasescausingredness’, mentīgō ’rash on the chins of lambs’; aurūgō ’jaundice’ (cf. alsoferrūgō’rust’, aerūgō ’greenspan’); cf. Also Arm. dalukn ‘jaundice’ • The suffixesLat. -ēdō and Gk. –edon for physical and mental (especiallyunhealthy) states, e.g. frīgēdō ’cold’, gravēdō ’pains in the joints’, torpēdō ’paralysis’ , Gk. algedon ’pain’

24. Institut for Nordiske Studier og Sprogvidenskab Healing • *(h)ei̯sh1-: Hitt. iskiya- ’anoint(ritually and medicallly)’, Toch. aise’vigour’, Skt. iṣirá- ’strong, lively’, íṣ-kṛti- ’healing’, Gk. hierós ’holy’, iáomai ’heal’ (*(h)ish1i̯ah2-i̯e/o-), iatrós ’doctor’, iaíno ’warm, refresh’ • *med-(?): Av. vi-maδaiia- (only’als Ermesser ermessen’ = ’als Artztuntersuchen’), Lat. medeor, medicus; root*med- ’measure; worryabout, takecare of, think’ (cf. e.g. OIr. midithir’judge’, Lat. modus, modestus, Osk. meddík- ’a magistrate’)

25. Institut for Nordiske Studier og Sprogvidenskab Health and healing • Healthy: *sol(h)u̯o-: Toch.A. salu-, Skt. sarva-, Av. hauruua-, Gk. hólos ’whole’, Arm. ołĵ’whole, healthy’, Alb. gjallë’vigorous’, Lat. salvus’whole, healthy’ • Differentroot in W. coel’good omen’, Goth. hails’healthy’, OCS. cělъ‘healthy’ • The tripletreatment: • Pindar (Pyth.3, 47-53): epaodais... pharmaka... tomais ’by formulas... medicine... cutting’ • Av. (Vidēvdāt 7.44): karətō.baēšaza ... uruuarō.baēšaza ... mąϑrō.baēšaza’the knife-treatment... herb-treatment... formula-treatment’

26. Institut for Nordiske Studier og Sprogvidenskab Seen and unseen (worms) • Vedic, e.g. AV 2.31.2: dṛṣtam ... adṛṣtamatṛham’I have crushed the seen and the unseen (invisible) (worm) • Cato, Agr. 141: morbosuisosinuisosque’unseen and seendiseases’ • Umbr. (Ig. VIa, 28): uirsetoauirsetouas’seen and unseendefect’

27. Institut for Nordiske Studier og Sprogvidenskab Bodyparts and cosmos • Bodyparts, especially of the primordialbeingcorrespond the elements in the cosmos (bone = stone, flesh= earth, blood= water), mentioned in a particularsequence: • Vedic: hair, skin (blood, fat), flesh (sinews), bones (joints) marow; thusalso in Avestan, in Hittite ritual texts, especiallybirth- and healing rituals where a scapegoat is typicallyused (the Hittitesalsousescapemice !), from Germanic (OHG) and from Old Irish: • ”DíanCechtdidn’tlike the cure. He raised a sword over the head of his son and cut until the flesh of the head. It healed. He cut himagainuntil the bone. It healed. He cut a third time until the brainmembrane. It healed. Thenhe cut a fourth time until the brain, so Míachdied”.

28. Institut for Nordiske Studier og Sprogvidenskab Healing • Similaritiesbetween the Atharvavedaand the MerseburgerSprüche: • ben zibena : asthnasty... ’bone to bone’ • bluotzubluoda : ásṛk te asthna ’blood to (your) blood’ • lid zigeliden : páruṣā paruḥ ’limb to limb’ • AV: ”Let yourmarrowbe with marrow, your joint with joint. Let what of yourflesh has fallen apartbetogether, let marrowbejoined with marrow, let skin growtogether with skin, let yourbloodgrow with blood, let fleshgrow with flesh. Joinhair with hair, join skin with skin. Let you bone grow with bone. Put what is brokentogether, o plant!”

29. Institut for Nordiske Studier og Sprogvidenskab MerseburgerSprüche • ”Phol and Wotan wereriding to the woods, Balder’s horse spraineditsfoot, Sithgunt, sister of Sunna beseeched it, Freya, sister of Follabeseeched it, Wotan beseeched it as well as hecould: As leg-spraining, thusblood-spraining, thus joint-spraining: bone to bone, blood to blood, joint to joint”.

30. Institut for Nordiske Studier og Sprogvidenskab Sick-maintenance in Indo-European (Watkins) • Hit. Laws, § 10: ”If somebody strikes a man so thathegetsill, he must takecare of (nu apūnšaktāizzi). He must give a man insteadwhocantakecare of his house untilhegetswell. Whenhegetswelll, he must give him 6 shekelsilver, and he must alsopay the doctor’sbill.” • Similarly in Old Irish: • Oir. Hit. • Attack+ + • Illness + + • The invalid is moved+ • The invalid nursed+ + • Man as compensation + + • Security + • Doctor declares patient cured + • Compensation+ +

31. Institut for Nordiske Studier og Sprogvidenskab