Earth’s major plates

1. Earth’s major plates Note: Boundaries rarely correspond to the contact between oceans and continents!

2. Types of plate boundaries

3. Relation between igneous activity and plate boundaries

4. Starting point: Continents and oceans are the pieces of an eden broken up by the great flood:

5. Alfred Wegener proposes continental drift ca. 1912 1: The earth is divided into continents and oceans Alfred Wegener, ca. 1920, in a weird hat.

6. 2: The continents look like pieces of a puzzle, and share elements of their geology.

7. 3: The distribution of fossil animals and plants re-enforces the tie-points between the continents

8. 4: The edges of the continents are locations of faulting and seismicity

9. 5: when continents rift apart, you find an ocean between them Horst Rift Graben

10. Put it all together, and see that the continents were once connected but have drifted apart by ‘sliding’ over or ‘plowing’ through the ocean floor Driving force: mystery, or centrifugal force, or both

11. Counter-arguments This is just stupid Any force strong enough to ‘push’ a continent over a bed of ocean floor would internally deform the continent instead

12. Counter-arguments Not all pieces of the continental puzzle really match

13. Counter-arguments Many continental margins don’t even fit geometrically

14. Counter-arguments Even if they fit, so what! Lots of ‘fits’ are possible just by chance

15. Breakthrough: Harry Hess and the exploration of the ocean floor A ridge • Led to discovery that the ocean floor is the active part of the plate system, not the passive medium through which continents move.

16. A ridge and its transforms seen in plan view

17. Ahh, trenches

18. The real story with seismicity Wagener was only partially correct. The ring of fire is a locus of faulting, but there are other loci not expected if continents drift

19. Benioff-Wadati zones And, the seismicity at the edges of the ring of fire don’t represent continents sliding over oceans; they are places where ocean floor plunges into the deep earth interior.

20. Active Volcanism Centered on most great belts of seismicity, and is rare elsewhere

21. Terrestrial Magnetism

22. Dip Intensity (in mysterious units — 10,000 ’s)

23. Preservation in rocks of the orientation of the magnetic field

24. Variation through time of the apparent location of the north magnetic pole, based on records from North American rocks

25. Phanerozoic records of magnetic polar wander from Europe and North America disagree…unless they have moved relative to each other (or, the shape of the Earth’s magnetic field has varied) Interesting, but all it really does is support and ‘flesh out’ Wegener’s view of ‘continental drift’.

26. Much more important is an incredibly subtle detail to the fine structure of the modern magnetic field…

27. A closer look… Anomaly (I.e., relative to long-wavelength field) Measured

28. The anomalies represent positive and negative interference from magnetic rocks in the crust A magnetic ‘reversal’ occurs between these two times

29. How do we know? We’ve seen them appear after volcanic eruptions on the sea floor.

30. Some real examples

31. Calibrating the ocean floor’s ‘strip-chart recorder’ 1: Collecting samples with the Glomar Challenger

32. K-Ar dating 0.01167 % of natural K 40K e- emission;  = 4.982x10-10 yr-1 e- capture; e = 0.581x10-10 yr-11 40Ca 40Ar 88.8 % 11.2 %  = e +  = 5.543x10-10 yr-1 40Ar = e/40K(et-1) + 40Ar0

33. Some ‘closure temperatures’ w/r to K/Ar dating: Amphibole: 500 to 700 ˚C Biotite: 300 to 400 ˚C K-feldspar: 200-250 ˚C

34. Use in dating magnetic reversals

35. Maps of magnetic ‘stripes’

36. Sometimes it’s fun to pretend that our record of the seafloor’s magnetic stripes is complete:

37. Implied rates of plate divergence, convergence and strike-slip motion