Chapter 6 Hagger & Chatzisarantis

1. Emotion and Anxiety in Sport Chapter 6 Hagger & Chatzisarantis

2. Definition of terms Affect Mood Emotion Anger Anxiety Mood states Happiness Guilt

3. Arousal and Anxiety Definition of Anxiety • Negative, maladaptive emotional state characterised by nervousness, worry, and apprehension with concomitant physiological activation • Associated with an inability to cope with environmental stressors (Hagger & Chatzisarantis, 2005)

4. Arousal and Anxiety Multidimentionality Anxiety Theory (CSAI-2; Martens et al., 1990) • Cognitive Anxiety = Perceptions related to state of anxiety e.g. “worried”, “anxious” • Somatic Anxiety = Physiological symptoms of anxiety e.g. butterflies in stomach, galvanic skin response • Self-Confidence = Positive emotional statements regarding future performance e.g. confident, positive

5. Example Items from CSAI-2 Following are several statements that athletes have used to describe their feelings before competition. Think of a competition in which you have recently participated. Read each statement and then tick the appropriate box to the right of the statement to indicate how you felt at that moment. There are no right or wrong answers. Don’t spend too much time on any one statement, but choose the answer that best describes your feelings at that particular time. (Please tick one box)  

6. Arousal and Anxiety Definition of Arousal General physiological and psychological activation varying from deep sleep to intense excitation • State Anxiety = Feelings of nervousness, worry and apprehension in a given situation, changeable • Trait Anxiety = General disposition that results in a person interpreting objectively non-threatening events as threatening and results in a disproportionately high anxiety response

7. Arousal and Anxiety Trait States Arousal Trait Anxiety State Anxiety Cognitive State Anxiety Self-Confidence Somatic State Anxiety

8. Mediational Model of Hierarchical Anxiety and Performance Trait States Behaviour State Somatic Anxiety Competitive Trait Anxiety State Cognitive Anxiety Sport Performance State Self-Confidence

9. The Role of Stress Definition of Stress “A substantial imbalance between demand and response capability, under conditions where failure to meet that demand has important consequences” McGrath (1970, p.20)

10. Anxiety-Performance Relationship How does anxiety affect performance Is it a clear negative effect? • Craft et al. (2003) conducted a meta-analysis across 29 studies • Found small corrected relationships: • Cognitive anxiety (b = -.13, p < .05) • Somatic anxiety (b = -.09, p < .05) • Self-confidence (b = .36, p < .05)

11. Anxiety and Performance Drive Theory High Performance Low High Physiological Arousal Spence and Spence (1966)

12. Anxiety and Performance The ‘Inverted-U’ Hypothesis High Sprinter Pool Player Performance Low High Physiological Arousal Landers and Boutcher (1986)

13. Anxiety and Cognition How does anxiety affect sports performance? White (1998): High-ego, low-task competitors interpreted competitive situations as anxiety-provoking Dickson and McLeod (2004): Avoidance goals most strongly associated with increased cognitive anxiety Yoo (2003): Intervention to induce a task-oriented motivational climate reduced cognitive and somatic anxiety levels

14. Intensity and Direction in Anxiety(Jones et al., 1992, 1993, 1995) Anxiety alone not as important as INTERPRETATION of anxiety Two dimensions of anxiety • Intensity = Degree of state anxiety experienced by athlete in a given situation • Direction = Evaluation of anxiety as being positive and helping performance (facilitative) or negative and harmful to performance (debilitative)

15. Intensity and Direction in Anxiety(Jones et al., 1992, 1993, 1995) • No differences in ‘levels’ / ‘intensity’ of anxiety • Elite or ‘expert’ athletes tended to view anxiety as facilitative • Strong relationships in Gymnasts and Swimmers between facilitative interpretation and performance (Jones and Swain, 1992; Jones, Swain and Hardy, 1993)

16. Promoting a Facilitative Interpretation • Interviewed competitive swimmers and tested their anxiety levels and DIRECTION prior to competition • Interviews revealed key strategies among those with high-facilitative interpretations: • Activation (mantras, visualisation) • Restructuring (positive thoughts, reinterpreting) • Confidence-building (imagery, training log) • Relaxation (imagery, PNF) • (Hanton and Jones, 1999a; 1999b)

17. Hardy’s (1990)Catastrophe Theory High Low cognitive anxiety Performance Low High High High cognitive anxiety Performance Low High Physiological Arousal

18. Individualised Optimal Zone of Functioning (IZOF) In Zone (Best Performance) Out of Zone Out of Zone Athlete A (Low IZOF) Athlete B (Moderate IZOF) Out of Zone In Zone (Best Performance) Out of Zone Out of Zone Out of Zone In Zone (Best Performance) Athlete C (High IZOF) State Anxiety Level Hanin (1980, 1986, 1997)

19. Mood States in Sport “Mood” is often considered a series of emotional states that are less intense and more enduring that emotions Morgan (1980): Use the POMS to produce an “Iceberg Profile” for elite performers Cockerill et al. (1999): POMS explained little variance in sport performance Rowley et al. (1995): Iceberg profile consistent across performers, but effect on performance small (d = .15)

20. Morgan’s (1980) Iceberg Profile Successful Performer 70 60 Less- Successful Performer 50 40 30 Tension Depression Anger Vigour Fatigue Confusion

21. Mood States in Sport Beedie et al. (2000): Made distinction between “absolute” and “relative” performance in sport – Rowley did not – and found: Absolute performance: d = .10 (small) Relative performance: d = .31 (medium) Also found moderate effect sizes for individual scales, positive for “vigour” and negative for “tension” and “depression” Important to make distinctions between mood components

22. Implications for Practice • Identify optimal arousal for best performance • Recognise the interaction between personal and situational factors in producing anxiety response • Recognise signs of increased arousal • Develop confidence in performers to help cope with anxiety • Foster a task involved motivational climate • Cognitive reappraisal techniques