INTRODUCTION TO MOTIVATION & HISTORICAL THEORIES

1. INTRODUCTION TO MOTIVATION & HISTORICAL THEORIES Damon Burton University of Idaho

2. How do you define motivation?

3. MOTIVATION DEFINED • Motivation is the “process of arousing action, sustaining activity in progress and regulating patterns of activity.” • Motivation focuses mainly on what arouses or energizes behavior.

4. COMPONENTS OF MOTIVATION • direction – choices made • intensity – arousal

5. ANTECEDENTS OF MOTIVATION • personality variables • situational factors

6. INTERACTIONAL MOTIVATIONAL MODEL T1 T3 baseline = personality T1-T4 = situational factors T4 T2

7. DO YOU KNOW IT IF YOU SEE IT? • How do you know if someone is motivated? • What behaviors demonstrate strong motivation?

8. CONSEQUENCES OF MOTIVATION • choice of activity • effort/intensity levels • persistence in face of failure or adversity • continuing motivation

9. 10 CONCEPTIONS OF MOTIVATION 1. Greek Philosophers 2. Dualism 3. Instinct Theory 4. Evolution Theory 5. Revised Instinct Theory

10. 10 CONCEPTIONS OF MOTIVATION 6.Ethology 7. Learning Theories 8. Cognitive Theories 9. Freudian Theory 10. Humanistic Theories

11. GREEK PHILOSOPHERS • Philosopher Epicurus says humans are motivated to seek pleasure and avoid pain. • Greeks smart enough to recognize that short-term pleasure can bring long-term pain. • Conversely, short-term pain can prompt long-term pleasure

12. DUALISM • Man has both a physical and spiritual nature. • Motivation can be derived by meeting physical needs (i.e., food, water, and sex) • Motivation can come from meeting spiritual needs (i.e., living the good life, believing in a higher being, etc)

13. INSTINCT THEORY • Instincts – purposive activities implanted in the animal by nature for the guidance of the creature in the attainment of behaviors designed to preserve the species. (i.e., geese migrating) • Descartes believed that humans can control instincts

14. EVOLUTION THEORY • Darwin – suggested that survival was the greatest motivator. • “Natural Selection” – emphasizes that species characteristics that have survival value are passed along • Humans are motivated to not only survive but also to pass survival characteristics along to their off-spring

15. REVISED INSTINCT THEORY • McDougall (1908) identified 10 major instincts in human beings that motivate them • flight • repulsion • curiosity • gregariousness • pugnacity • self-abasement • assertion • reproduction • acquisition • construction

16. ETHOLOGY • Certain instinct-like responses are prewired in humans • Behavior patterns occur in response to specific environmental stimuli • Each action has its own energy source • Innate responses can be modified in the face of environmental obstacles.

17. LEARNING THEORIES • S R The frequency and duration of behavior are due to the person’s reinforcement history. • The direction of motivation is due to reinforcement processes (i.e., how reinforcement is given) • The persistence of motivation is due to the scheduling of reinforcement (i.e., when motivation is given)

18. COGNITIVE THEORIES • Perception guides behavior, so motivation is based on perceived reality. • S C R • Motivation is based on understanding how humans think and what goals they value

19. FREUDIANTHEORY • Libido – provides general source from which all instincts draw energy • If too much energy builds up then it becomes a source of tension • To reduce tension, humans seek out appropriate goals to channel their energy.

20. HUMANISTIC THEORIES • Basic premise of humanism is that humans are good and possess the innate tendency to grow, mature and strive to help others in their own unique way. • Carl Rogers believes we’re motivated to develop a positive self concept and realize our potential. • “Conditional love” often produces a negative self-image.

21. EARLY MOTIVATION THEORIES • McClelland • Atkinson • Crandall • Early theories are not used extensively today, but they had a number of components that have been incorporated into contemporary motivation theories

22. MCCLELLAND’S LEGACY • Motivation has an important long-term impact on economic productivity. • A society’s values determine how they rear their children • Child-rearing practices determine a person’s achievement motivation • Achievement motivation drives economic productivity

23. ACHIEVING SOCIETY STUDY 1 • Society demonstrates economic growth when it is led by achievement motivation people. • Weber’s “protestant work ethic” (PWE) was a value that prompted capitalism and increased economic productivity • PWE promotes child-rearing that fosters mastery, competence and self-reliance.

24. ACHIEVING SOCIETY STUDY 1 MODEL Economic Productivity Protestant Work Ethic Achievement-Oriented Child-Rearing Practices Achievement-Oriented People

25. STUDY 1 DESIGN • Child-rearing practices measured through content analysis of reading texts. • Do reading texts include a number of motivational themes typical of high achievers. • Economic growth assessed by GNP 25 or 50 years later.

26. ACHIEVING SOCIETY STUDY 1 Economic Productivity in 1950’s Child-Rearing Practices in 1925 Development of Achievement-Motivated Citizens Achievement-Motivated Citizens Become Leaders

27. ACHIEVING SOCIETY STUDY 2 • Values of ancient Greece transmitted via child-rearing practices. • Child-rearing practices assessed by designs on pottery. • Economic growth measured by the distance from Athens where pottery was found.

28. MCCLELLAND’S MODEL OF ACHIEVEMENT TRAINING • Achievement-motivated people can be developed by teaching people to think, talk and behave like high achievers • Developed and conducted week-long achievement motivation workshop • Training focused on goal setting, self talk, social support, and achievement language while enhancing the motivational climate • Workshops in the U.S. and India showed enhanced performance 2 years later.

29. LEADERSHIP SYNDROME • Low Need for Affiliation – so can make tough decisions • High Need for Power – exercise power through organizational guidelines (i.e., institutional power versus dominance) • High Activity Inhibition – do not blatantly exploit their power for their own personal advantage

30. ATKINSON’S ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION THEORY • Ts = Mas X Ps X Is • Tf = Maf X Pf X If • Ts/Tf = Tendency to Achieve Success/Avoid Failure • Mas/Maf = Motive to Achieve Success/Avoid Failure • Ps/Pf = Probability of Achieving Success/Avoiding Failure • Is/If = Importance of Achieving Success/Avoiding Failure

31. TASK CHOICE PREFERENCES Mas High Attractiveness of Task Maf Low .10 .50 .90 Probability of Success

32. IMPORTANCE OF SUCCESS AND FAILURE • Is = 1 - Ps • If = 1 - Pf • If Ps = .10, then Is = .90 • If Pf = .70, then If = .30

33. THEMATIC APPERCEPTION TEST (TAT) • Based on Freud’s work, achievement motives exhibit themselves in one’s fantasy life (e.g., dreams) • Subjects are given an ambiguous picture and asked to make up a story about what is going on. • Pictures are open to a variety of interpretations, so what people choose to see reflects personal bias, especially achievement motives. • The language, content and imagery representing different motivational themes are then defined empirically.

34. CRITICISMS OF ATKINSON’S THEORY • Overemphasizes personality as the crucial variable. • Can’t account for gender, ethnic or cross-cultural differences. • Low nAch participants outperform high nAch in certain situations • Only predicts extreme Ts and Tf well • TAT has questionable validity • Doesn’t specify how Mas and Maf develop.

35. CRANDALL (1982) THEORY • BP = (EX – MS) x AV • BP = Behavior Potential or Motivation • EX = Expectancy or Ps • MS = Minimal Standard • AV = Attainment Value or Importance

36. CRANDALL THEORY • Crandall’s Theory was developed to look at motivation in children • Achievement Behavior – defined as behavior directed toward the attainment of approval or the avoidance of disapproval from one’s self or others, specifically contingent upon measures of competence of performance in situations where standards of excellence apply to that performance (i.e., achievement situations).

37. EXPECTANCY • Expectancy – a person’s implicit assessment of their level of proficiency to perform various achievement tasks (i.e., EX = Ps). • Atkinson says objective Ps = subjective Ps and Is = 1 - Ps • Crandall say Ps or expectancy is determined by one’s history of reinforcements on the same or similar tasks and Is and Ps are independent

38. MINIMAL STANDARD • Minimal Standard – lowest level of performance that a person will accept as defining success. • If a baseball player hits .300, how is that performance interpreted is their MS is .250 versus .350.

39. MINIMAL STANDARD .400 .300 .200

40. ATTAINMENT VALUE • Attainment Value – the degree of importance attached to attaining approval or avoiding disapproval based on performance in tasks in a particular achievement domain. • physical or athletic • academic or intellectual • artistic or creative • mechanical

41. The End