Sociology: Perspective, Theory, and Method

1. Sociology: Perspective, Theory, and Method

2. Sociological Perspective • Sociology – the systematic study of human society. • The sociological perspective. • Seeing the general in the particular • Seeing the strange in the familiar • Seeing individuality in social context

3. Benefits of the Sociological Perspective • Helps us critically assess “commonsense” ideas. • Helps us see the opportunities and constraints in our lives. • Empowers us to be active participants in our society. • Helps us to live in a diverse world.

4. The Origins of Sociology • New science born from social forces. -Industrial Revolution -Growth of cities • Political Change -Pursuit of self-interest

5. Auguste Comte • Coined the term “Sociology” in 1838 • Favored Positivism - A way of understanding based on science • Society operates according to certain laws • Discovered social principles and also applied them to social reform

6. Emile Durkheim • Emphasis on showing how social forces impact people’s behavior • Emphasis on thorough research • Suicide (1897) • Social factors underlie suicide – not simply personal reasons • Social integration – the degree to which people are tied to their social group

7. Emile Durkheim • Social research must be practical -Discover causes for social ills and recommend remedies • Anomie -Breaking down of the controlling influences of society -People become detached from society and are left with too little moral guidance

8. Karl Marx • Class conflict is the engine of human history • Society is divided into classes who clash in pursuit of their own class interests • Group identifications and associations influence an individual’s place in society • Concept of “praxis” -People should take active steps to change society -Theory and action

9. Max Weber • “Verstehen” (understanding) should be used in intellectual work • To fully comprehend behavior, we must learn the subjective meanings people attach to their actions – how they themselves view and explain their behavior • Disagreed with Marx that economics was the central force in change - Felt that religion was

10. W.E.B. DuBois • Worked under Max Weber • 1st person of color to receive a doctorate from Harvard • Founding member of the NAACP • Worked on race and inequality

11. Herbert Spencer • Did not believe that sociology should guide social reform • Believed in “social Darwinism” -Over time, societies improve -Coined the term “Survival of the fittest” • Did not conduct scientific studies

12. Robert Merton • Social structure has many functions, some more obvious than others -Manifest functions – the recognized and intended consequences of any social pattern -Latent functions – the unrecognized and unintended consequences of any social pattern • Social dysfunction – any social pattern that may disrupt the operation of society

13. Why Theory? • Allows for full exploration of an issue or problem • 3 sociological theoretical paradigms - Sets of assumptions that guide thinking and research

14. Structural-Functionalism • Society is a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability. - Social structure – relatively stable patterns of social behavior • If something does not serve a useful, identifiable purpose, it will not be passed from generation to generation

15. Social-Conflict Theory • Sees society as an arena of inequality, generating conflict and change • Paradigm focuses on how society’s institutions including family, government, religion, education, and the media may help to maintain the privileges of some groups and keep others in subservient positions • Looks to who benefits and who suffers

16. Symbolic-Interactionism • Sees society as the product of the everyday interactions of individuals • Micro-level orientation • Humans live in a world of meaningful objects – symbols

17. How Sociology is studied • Science – a logical system that bases knowledge on empirical evidence • Scientific method - Systematic, organized series of steps that ensures maximum objectivity and consistency in researching a problem

18. Step 1- Defining the Problem • State as clearly as possible what you hope to investigate

19. Step 2 – Review the Literature • See what other people have already written about the issue

20. Step 3 – Formulate Hypothesis • Hypothesis – A speculative relationship between 2 or more factors • Variables – concepts whose value changes from case to case - Independent variable – the variable that influences other variables - Dependent variable – the variable that “depends” on the influence of the independent variable

21. Step 3 - Formulate Hypothesis • Measurement – the process of determining the value of a variable in a specific case -Reliability – consistency in measurement -Validity – precision in measuring exactly what one intends to measure

22. Step 4 – Selecting Research Design • Detailed plan for obtaining data scientifically • Survey research – a study which provides info on how people think and act - Interview - Questionnaire

23. Step 4 – Selecting Research Design • Samples - Representative – a selection from the larger population that is statistically typical - Random – everyone in the population has the same chance of being selected

24. Step 4 – Selecting Research Design • Existing sources • Observation – watching individual behavior • Experiment – specific design to produce expected results - Experiment group – exposed to the independent variable - Control group – not exposed to the independent variable

25. Step 5 – Developing the Conclusion • May or may not support hypothesis • Serves as basis for further research