Consequences of Stigma

1. Consequences of Stigma

2. Young, Nussbaum, & Monin, 2007 32 students� completed online survey about health behaviors were informed of risk for Liscus Acidophilus (Tuner�s Disease) read information about disease, modeled after influenza

3. Liscus Acidophilus (commonly called �Tuner�s Disease�) is a contagious respiratory disease. The disease is transmitted through bacterial contact, and can cause mild to severe illness, and at times can lead to death. The best way to prevent Tuner�s Disease is by getting a vaccination each year. Every year in the United States, on average 5% to 20% of the population gets Tuner�s Disease; more than 200,000 people are hospitalized from complications, and; about 36,000 people die from Tuner�s Disease. Some people, such as older people, young children, and people with certain health conditions, are at high risk for serious complications.

4. Liscus Acidophilus (commonly called �Tuner�s Disease�) is a contagious respiratory disease. The disease, frequently transmitted sexually, can cause mild to severe illness, and at times can lead to death. The best way to prevent Tuner�s Disease is by getting a vaccination each year. Every year in the United States, on average 5% to 20% of the population gets Tuner�s Disease; more than 200,000 people are hospitalized from complications, and; about 36,000 people die from Tuner�s Disease. Some people, such as older people, young children, and people with certain health conditions, are at high risk for serious complications.

5. Young, et al., 2007 32 students� completed online survey about health behaviors, then debriefed after debriefing, were informed of risk for Liscus Acidophilus (Tuner�s Disease) read information about disease, modeled after influenza Control group: �disease is transmitted through bacterial contact� Sex risk group: disease is �frequently transmitted sexually� Participants indicated likelihood of getting tested.

7. Young, et al., 2007 Researchers manipulated whether disease was transmissible through unprotected sex. 113 students judged likelihood of a target who�d contracted the disease engaging in immoral behaviors. Result: targets with sexually-transmissible disease seen as more immoral. Researchers manipulated whether disease was transmissible through unprotected sex. 112 students considered how likely they would be to tell other people that they had contracted the disease. Result: participants with sexually-transmissible disease were less likely to tell others that they had contracted it.

8. Conclusions The stigma attached to sexually transmissible disease� Confers perceptions of immorality Heightens fears of appearing immoral Reduced likelihood of getting tested for the disease� With potentially dire health consequences.

9. But what is �stigma�? Plous: ��a mark of inferiority or shame. Stigmatized groups are usually looked down upon or avoided.� Stigma is a mark that violates a norm. Whitley & Kite: ��stigmatized groups violate the norms established by the dominant group � and, as such, are marked by the resulting social stigma.� So stigma is also the negative value attached to a mark, due to its violation of a norm.

10. st??�a Etymology Greek: scar left by a hot iron, i.e., a brand Used to identify criminals, slaves, or traitors as blemished or morally polluted persons to be avoided or shunned, particularly in public places Plural: stigmata

11. Dimensions of stigma(Jones, Farina, Hastorf, Markus, Miller, & Scott, 1984) Course Concealability Aesthetic qualities Origin Peril

12. Dimensions of stigma(Jones et al., 1984) Course Also stability the duration of the stigma Brief (unstable) Acne Permanent (stable) Facial scarring More stable stigmas are usually more negative.

13. Dimensions of stigma(Jones et al., 1984) 2. Concealability The ability to hide or control the stigma Concealable: Homosexuality Depression Unconcealable Skin color Gender Age Implications for people�s ability to manage negative reactions to their stigma However, concealability can have negative consequences. E.g., failure to seek treatment for mental illness.

14. Dimensions of stigma(Jones et al., 1984) 3. Aesthetic qualities Unattractiveness Acne Disfigurements and deformity (scarring, missing limbs, etc.) Facial symmetry Subject to cultural norms Body shape Hair, skin, and eye color Generally, less attractive individuals are more stigmatized.

15. Dimensions of stigma(Jones et al., 1984) 4. Origin Onset also control over onset, i.e., culpability (can an internal or external attribution be made for the stigma?) Less controllable stigmas provoke more pity More controllable stigmas provoke more anger Origin can be ambiguous: Obesity Homosexuality Alcohol addiction Criminality

16. Dimensions of stigma(Jones et al., 1984) 5. Peril Perceived danger� to physical safety to health to moral values to property, resources, and economic well-being May not be correlated with actual danger Mental illness and violent crime AIDS and contagiousness More perilous stigmas are usually more negative.

17. But what does it mean to be �stigmatized�? Consequences of Stigma� Stereotyping Prejudice Discrimination But stigma can have consequences beyond the reactions it elicits in perceivers. Many consequences can arise from anticipated reactions. E.g., consequences for task performance.

18. Steele & Aronson, 1995 Studies 1 & 2: Black and White students answered difficult items from the GRE. Half of Ps told test diagnosed intellectual ability Half of Ps told test was just a laboratory problem-solving task

19. Steele & Aronson, 1995 Results:

20. Steele & Aronson, 1995 Study 3: Same procedure as studies 1 & 2 Participants also completed word fragments that could be completed with words relating to: Black stereotypes Self-doubt

21. Steele & Aronson, 1995 Race related word fragments: _ _ C E (RACE) L A _ _ (LAZY) _ _ A C K (BLACK) _ _ O R (POOR) C L _ S _ (CLASS) B R _ _ _ _ _ (BROTHER) _ _ _ T E (WHITE) M I _ _ _ _ _ (MINORITY) W E L _ _ _ _ (WELFARE) C O _ _ _ (COLOR) TO _ _ _ (TOKEN)

22. Steele & Aronson, 1995 Self-doubt related word fragments: L O _ _ _ (LOSER) D U _ _ (DUMB) S H A _ _ (SHAME) _ _ _ E R I O R (INFERIOR) F L _ _ _ (FLUNK) _ A R D (HARD) W _ _ K (WEAK)

23. Steele & Aronson, 1995 Study 3: Same procedure as studies 1 & 2 Participants also completed word fragments that could be completed with words relating to: Black stereotypes Self-doubt Participants also rated their preferences for a variety of activities (some of which were black-associated, e.g., jazz, basketball).

24. Steele & Aronson, 1995 Results: Blacks taking the diagnostic test were more likely to demonstrate activation of black stereotypes and self-doubt in word completions. �and also distanced themselves from stereotypically black activities.

25. Steele & Aronson, 1995 Why? Blacks are aware of the stereotype that their group is intellectually inferior. (The threat is �in the air�.) Their awareness of the stereotype is activated by the situation (the diagnostic test). The situation poses the threat of confirming that stereotype through poor performance. Preoccupation with this stereotype threat interferes with their actual task performance.

26. What about otherperformance domains? E.g., sports. Stone, Lynch, Sjomeling, & Darley, 1999 40 black and 40 white students played mini-golf Some told the task tested �natural ability� Some told the task tested �the ability to think strategically�

27. Stone et al., 1999 Results:

28. Stereotype Threat Does stereotype threat (and lift?) occur for other stigmatized groups? Asians Women Could �positive� stereotypes result in stereotype �lift�? Asians stereotyped as having good quantitative skills Women stereotyped as having poor quantitative skills

29. Stereotype Threat For example�

30. Shih, Pittinsky, & Ambady (1999). 46 Asian-American female students Completed a test consisting of 12 math questions from the Univesity of Waterloo�s Canadian Math Competition Researchers made identity salient before the test: Race-salient condition: asked questions about known languages and family history in America Gender-salient condition: asked questions about living in a co-ed dorm Control condition

31. Shih et al. (1999) Results:

32. Stereotype Threat So, awareness of stereotypes can� affect performance in a number of domains: Verbal ability Quantitative ability Athletic ability affect performance by members of a number of groups: Blacks Asians Whites Females And can depress, as well as �lift�, task performance.

33. Stereotype Threat General features of stereotype threat: 1. Situational (not personal) Stereotype threat arises from situational factors making the stereotype salient The person need not believe in the stereotype, or that it applies to them. 2. Not group-specific Anyone, from any group, can be affected� �even if the group is not generally stigmatized �particularly if the performance domain or group membership are central to their identities. 3. Stereotype-dependent (not identity-dependent) Stereotypes (and their relevant performance domains) vary from group to group.

34. Stereotype threat Can stereotype threat be reduced? Reduce perceived diagnosticity of tests Reduce perceived difficulty of tests ST effects strongest for more difficult tasks Provide role models Women perform better on a math test after reading about successful women.

35. Some types of situations evoke stereotype threat, leading people to anticipate confirming a negative stereotype. Are some types of people more likely to anticipate being stigmatized? Stigma consciousness � the extent to which people expect to be stereotyped

36. Pinel, 2002 59 male and 59 female participants All female Ps had completed a Stigma Consciousness Questionnaire Males and females were paired into opposite-sex dyads to participate in a mock hiring decision Females received information about male partner: Sexist Non-sexist Participants shared their impressions of each other in an interaction. Finally, participants evaluated essays written by each other.

37. Pinel, 2002 Results:

38. Does stigma also have negative consequences for self-esteem? Why might it? Reflected appraisals The �looking-glass self� (Cooley, 1956) Self-fulfilling prophecies Occur when someone acts on an initially false in a way that causes those beliefs to become true. Efficacy-based self-esteem Self-esteem earned through successful action So we might reasonably conclude that stigmatized groups have low self-esteem.

39. Stigma & Self-esteem However, data is mixed at best. Crocker & Major, 1989: Blacks have higher self-esteem than other ethnic groups, Whites included Women do not have lower self-esteem than men People with unattractive marks (e.g., obesity, facial disfigurement) do not have lowered self-esteem People who are developmentally disabled to not have lowered self-esteem.

40. Stigma & Self-esteem Why don�t these stigmatized groups have low self-esteem? Self-protective properties of stigma (Crocker & Major, 1989): Attributing negative feedback to group membership Ingroup comparisons Selectivity of values

41. Can stigmatization have consequences for the stigmatizer? Evidence suggests that, for people prejudiced toward an outgroup, interaction with members of that group may impair executive function. Executive function � the ability to regulate behavior by overriding automatic impulses.

42. Consequences for the stigmatizer Like a computer processor, the executive function has a limited capacity. Prejudiced people, when interacting with an outgroup, must override more automatic impulses, taxing their executive function. This taxing of their executive function may impair their ability to self-regulate later.

43. Richeson & Shelton, 2003 50 white students Completed the IAT Interacted with a Black or White confederate Completed a Stroop task

44. Richeson & Shelton, 2003 Stroop task (easy): RED BLUE BLUE RED GREEN GREEN GREEN RED BLUE BLUE RED GREEN BLUE RED

45. Richeson & Shelton, 2003 Stroop task (hard): RED RED BLUE BLUE RED GREEN BLUE RED BLUE GREEN GREEN BLUE RED GREEN

46. Richeson & Shelton, 2003 50 white students Completed the IAT Interacted with a Black or White confederate Completed a Stroop task

47. Richeson & Shelton, 2003 Results:

48. Can stigma have consequences for the stigmatized person�s associates? Do you know someone (either friend or family) who is� Black Middle Eastern Overweight Homosexual/queer A feminist In a fraternity/sorority An evangelical Christian Disabled Alcoholic �

49. Neuberg, Smith, Hoffman, & Russell, 1994 104 male students Viewed an interaction between two male friends (targets 1 and 2) Target 2 shared information about a romantic partner who was Same-sex Opposite sex Participants indicated social comfort toward Target 1

50. Neuberg, Smith, Hoffman, & Russell, 1994 Results:

51. Hebl & Mannix, 2003 40 male and female participants asked to evaluate information about a job candidate, including a r�sum� and a photo taken at �a small social reception� Photos depicted targets seated next to: Heavy female targets Average-weight female targets Participants rated applicant�s hiring eligibility, professional qualities, and interpersonal skills.

52. Hebl & Mannix, 2003 Results:

53. Stigma by Association Can arise from a variety of stigmas: Homosexuality Obesity etc. Can arise due to different types of associations: Roommates Mere proximity Can have consequences for: Social approachability Hiring prospects